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PhD Thesis

admin1 — Wed, 25 Jan 2012 02:38:54 +0000

When going to school for a doctorate degree in any subject, a PhD thesis is something that is generally required. This is different from any other type of research report you will be asked to write in your educational career. A dissertation, or thesis, is a culmination of original ideas and years of research and literature reviews. Creating a solid thesis and using sound research methodology will help you obtain that PhD you have been working so hard for. You can find a sample thesis here.

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What a PhD Thesis Is

Dissertation Proposal Outline

A PhD thesis is a large research paper that requires you to demonstrate new ideas, arguments, or theories backed up by literature reviews, research, and sound methodology. This is the culmination of your years of study. How to write a thesis is not so simple as choosing thesis topics and writing a descriptive paper about said subject. The thesis requires you to come up with an untested or new idea within your field of study – basically, you must provide an original idea for research.

Thesis format is also very different than most research papers one might have written in their undergraduate or Master’s level studies. Rather than being a paper, it is more a collection of different chapters that address your topic from a number of different angles. You must explain in detail the methodology you have used, as well as show the importance or relevance of the subject you are writing your thesis on. This will require you to analyze any work that has been done on the subject that you are studying, and looking for deficiencies in the arguments or research used by those who have tackled the subject before. Your thesis must show the value of your information to the field at large as well.

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PhD Thesis Outline

Before you start writing your thesis, there are a lot of things you need to do to prepare. First and foremost is creating a thesis outline. This will not only help to guide you in writing a coherent and concise thesis, it will also help to guide your research and chosen methodology. A lot is expected out of a doctoral thesis and there are strict requirements for sound research, literature reviews, and original ideas or theories. What follows are the chapters that are generally required in a PhD thesis. It is advised that you create an outline for how you plan to tackle each individual chapter of your thesis.

Abstract – This is where you will summarize, briefly, the thesis, methods used, as well as an interpretation of results.

Introduction

Background – This is where you discuss why you are doing the research you have chosen.

Related Work – Here you provide a critical assessment of any work already done on the subject.

Methodology, Methods of Obtaining Information, Interpretation

Assessment of Your Analysis

Conclusion

Appendices – This is where any additional information, statistics, charts, graphs, etc. should be placed.

Works Cited

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How to Choose a Topic for a PhD Thesis

When trying to come up with the best possible topic for your thesis proposal it can be easy to become muddled in all the different topics you can choose from. Choosing thesis topics is not as simple as choosing a topic for a traditional educational essay. The topic you choose should, obviously, be relevant to your field of study. You will need to come up with an idea that has not been addressed before, or come up with a new theory on an existing body of research. You want to choose something that can be measured and empirically studied. What follows are just a few tips that will help make choosing a solid thesis topic far easier.

Read the existing literature about any perspective topic. Doing so will help you figure out what angle you might be able to focus your research. It will also help you understand the overall body of knowledge already available and how you can begin to critique this information.

Don’t bit off more than you can chew. Some research topics are too broad and require more research than one can possibly handle.

Look at previously published dissertations for ideas as to what people choose to write about and how they tackle their subject.

What do you want to learn, contribute and study? A thesis should not be just to impress your advisors, it should be a research paper that answers questions that you have about your field of study, that are interesting to you, that help you forward your contribution to your field.

Research should be feasible. You do not have endless funds or time and this should be taken into consideration when choosing the right topic.

Keep the scope narrow enough to be manageable, but broad enough to allow for generalization of ideas. You do not want to tackle a subject that is too big or too small. When considering a topic, think about all the required chapters and whether or not your topic will be easily researched or written on.

Talk to your advisors about potential topics. They are there to help and guide you through this process. Your advisors can help you get on the right track and help you determine whether or not your subject is worth pursuing.

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PhD Thesis Structure

When writing a PhD thesis there is a basic structure that you will need to format your research around. A thesis is comprised of a number of different chapters, but also require a few other pages as this is a professionally published work. What follows is the traditional structure of most dissertations. Check with your advisor to make sure that you are not required to add any additional chapters to your thesis.

Declaration – Who is this work dedicated to?

Title Page

Acknowledgements – Here you will thank your advisors and anyone else who helped you with your research or the process of your writing.

Table of Contents – List, in order, the chapters that will be contained within your thesis.

Introduction – This is where you will introduce your topic or argument. You will also discuss how you plan on arguing your position, and what will be covered in the coming chapters.

Literature Review

Methods and Materials Used

Theory – What do you hope to prove with your empirical research?

Results and Interpretation of Results

Conclusion

Appendices

Work’s Cited

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What to Avoid in Writing a PhD Thesis

Writing a thesis is one of the hardest things one is tasked to do in any educational program. It is easy to get led down the wrong path, and this will keep you from writing the best thesis you can. What follows are a number of things to avoid when writing a thesis, as they will take away from your argument, the coherence of your argument, or will show flaws in your research and methods.

Tangents. It is easy to go off on a tangent and begin discussing something that isn’t contributing to the theory or research you are putting forth. Make sure that you stay focused on your topic and that you do not inject your chapters with irrelevant information.

Muddling up the focus and topic being researched. You need to have a solid focus of your paper and stick to the topic at hand.

Forgetting context. You must explain how your work is relevant to your field and the context with which your research is taking place in.

Not differentiating yourself from prior work in the area. One of the most important things about a PhD thesis is showing how your research, ideas, and information are different from what has already been put forth. You must show how your ideas and research is unique to the subject being studied.

Failing to provide a thorough literature review. It is important that you have an in depth understanding of previous contributions to your field of study. Failing to thoroughly review all the literature could lead to your “reinventing the wheel” or writing an unoriginal thesis.

Procrastination. Your advisors will know if you have hastily put together your thesis and this will likely result in your thesis being rejected. This is not something to put off until your final year of school. This is a long-term project that should be started as soon as possible. This will give you more time to do research, to strengthen your arguments and provide a real, valuable contribution to your field of study.

Not focusing enough time on your methodology and actual field research. This is one of the most important parts of your paper as it shows in a replicable way the way you came about the data used to support your argument. Your methodology shows how well you understand research methods, as well as how well you can glean from your research.

Choosing a topic that doesn’t grab your interest. This will make writing your thesis feel more like a chore than a project that is supposed to be the culmination of your years of education. This is your contribution to the field and should be something that you are passionate about.

Failure to take advantage of the help of your advisors. Stopping in and going over your thesis at various stages throughout the writing process will help keep you on the right track. Your advisors can show where there might be deficiencies in your arguments or how to strengthen your research.

Failing to follow your outline. Your outline was created to provide you a guide to follow in your research and writing of your thesis. Failure to follow this could lead to missing out on important topics that would strengthen your argument.

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admin1 — Fri, 30 Dec 2011 20:58:06 +0000

How to Write an Essay

Organizing an Essay

If you aim to write an excellent essay, you will need to incorporate multiple elements. A strong writing voice will communicate the topic in a clear but engaging manner. In addition, the paper should be free of grammatical and spelling errors. Even a well-written essay will fall flat if it is disorganized.

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Chronological organization places events in the order that they occurred. When writing a narrative or personal essay, you may want to present the events in a sequential fashion. What happened first? What happened second? What happened last?
Spatial organization requires you to present items based on their physical positions or relationships to other items. This arrangement is best used when you are making comparisons or describing items. For example, in a descriptive essay about the East Coast, you can progress north to south or south to north, moving from one state to the next.
Climatic organization places items in order of importance. For example, when writing a paper about hurricanes, you could start with tropical depressions and work your way up to category five storm systems.
Topical organization arranges the essay according to the aspects of your topic. For example, an essay that analyzes a movie will naturally progress to encompass various aspects of the film, such as characters, setting and plot.

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Essay Types

Depending on your class assignment, you will be asked to tackle a specific type of essay. Each essay has its own unique use and requires a certain writing style. Here is a look at the various types of essays.

Persuasive essays require you to adapt a conventional writing style and structure. The basic framework of the persuasive essay is similar to that of the argument essay, informative essay, definition essay, comparison essay and other types of essays that rely on expository writing.
Narrative essays allow more room for imaginative writing styles. You can employ fiction-writing techniq ues to reflect on events and develop your topic. Unlike the persuasive style, the narrative style doesn’t require you to present your point in a obvious manner.
Crossover essays draw upon traits of both narrative and persuasive essays. They can blend storytelling elements with expository aspects. Cause-and-effect, process and how-to essays fall under this category.

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write an essay, expect a challenge. Time, effort and attention to detail will yield an excellent product. However, if other obligations or time constraints block your path to writing, get essay help from us. Our top-notch service can handle any type of essay

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You can examine an essay sample on our website if you need to be convinced. When you need to get an essay finished on time and obtain a high grade, just place your order. You can focus on other obligations as we tend to the writing.

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Essay Structure.

Whether you are working on a standard analytical essay or a story-driven reflective essay, certain structural elements can boost the effectiveness of your message. If you make an outline before writing, you will ne

ed to address the following items.

Introductory paragraphs serve as a way to hook the readers and pull them into your writing. Common strategies for forming an introduction include offering a definition, quoting a famous line related to the topic, asking the reader a question or telling a short anecdote.
The thesis statement reveals your stance on the topic of the essay. This statement is usually one or two sentences long and makes an arguable claim. The thesis statement should be focused, and you must be able to support it with facts.
Body paragraphs provide evidence that supports your thesis statement. For example, in the case of a science paper, your evidence can be in th e form of research results, while literature papers can include text-based examples. You can create as many paragraphs as you need; however, ensure that transitions smoothly move the reader from paragraph to paragraph.
The conclusion reviews the main ideas of your essay. However, it should also emphasize the importance of your topic and stance. While this is not the time to offer new information, you can provide insight on previous statements or put them into a new perspective.

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Importance of a Topic Sentence.

Every paragraph should be armed with a topic sentence. This statement reveals the main idea of the paragraph. When used in essays, topic sentences highlight the driving points of your writing. You can think of topic sentences as lengthy headlines that lead into related details.

Topic sentences are versatile tools. In most cases, you will place one at the beginning of a paragraph. However, for climatic purposes, you can also choose to place the topic sentence at the end the paragraph.

Topic sentences provide specific points that you can relate to your thesis statement. This will provide a sense of organization and consistency. If you include specific keywords in your thesis statement and subsequent topic sentences, your essay will come across as focused yet progressive, as the main idea is constantly being developed.

In addition, a careful examination of your topic sentences will reveal weaknesses in your stance or sections of the essay that wander too far from the main idea. By addressing those weaknesses and tightening rambling sections of text, you will make your essay more effective.

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How to Format an Essay

Essays often require you to draw upon sources outside of your own knowledge and ideas. In those instances, you must take the time to cite borrowed ideas and information. A citation acknowledges the source of your information and allows you to avoid plagiarism. There are numerous ways you can cite a source. For example, you can utilize endnotes, footnotes and parenthetical citations throughout your text. A bibliography or works cited page should gather and organize all of your citations for easy reference.

Rather than one universal format for citations, you will find that academic writing relies on several different styles. The essay format you use depends on the essay’s subject.

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is utilized in courses that fall under humanities and liberal arts, such as literature or philosophy. In-text citations for an MLA format essay are parenthetical and reveal the author’s last name and page number of the information.

In a bibliography, an MLA citation entry assumes the following basic form:

Hemingway, Ernest. In Our Time. New York: Scribner, 1925. Print.

APA (American Psychology Association) style is used when constructing an essay that deals with a social science, such as psychology or sociology. In-text citations for an APA essay format involve the author’s last name and the year the source was published.

In a bibliography, this is the basic format of an APA citation entry:

Hemingway, E. (1925). In our time. New York, NY: Scribner.

Turabian and Chicago citation styles appear mostly in history papers. In-text citations take the form of endnotes and footnotes, which follow this form: Ernest Hemingway, In Our Time. (New York: Scribner, 1925).

In a bibliography, these styles demand the following basic format:

Hemingway, Ernest. In Our Time. New York: Scriber, 1925.

These format examples assume that the source has only one author and edition. Formats are also altered when additional information, such as page numbers, is available.

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10 Tips on Essay Writing

Analyze the title to ensure you fully understand the assignment and the instructions.
Examine available sources. After you consider the references, draw your own ideas from the text.
Write a rough draft of your essay introduction. What point will you be making and what evidence will you use to support your argument?
Draft an essay title and subheadings that you will use to organize the sections of your essay.
Create an essay outline and rough draft. Once you are done, you can include more details to expand the text.
Edit for grammatical and spelling errors. Read each word aloud as you edit.
Use a variety of sentence structures. Keep most sentences short.
Break large blocks of text into smaller paragraphs. You do not want to intimidate or exhaust the reader.
Avoid cliché statements and aim for more diverse wording.
Avoid using abbreviations in formal works. This may appear too casual.

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Business Essay Tips

admin1 — Thu, 29 Dec 2011 10:32:05 +0000

Are you running some business or planning to have one? If you are then you must know what Business essay is. As for me, I had to know.

I found out that it is important to be able to write a good Business essay. But to write one, there are things that you must always remember. First, you must find a good topic; it serves as the main idea. And second, you should have enough information.

For example, your family already has got business and you want to make a Business essay about it. It is best you keep notes of dates when it was first established, what is your mission and vision, and as well what makes it different from other businesses. A detailed report on sales can be used to; this can awe readers of how much your business has done in its industry.

Writing a Business essay require patience too, because if you don’t own the business you’d have to interview the owner. You must be patient in researching and taking down information because those are what make up the Business essay.

Then, make sure you make a clean outline on how you’re going to put down the information you’ve gathered. Avoid making your essay confusing if you’re using non-important words. It is best if you use facts rather than opinions and it is best you write it with backup proofs, because it will get more weight while considered.

When you write a Business essay, think of what it can do for business. When others read your business essay they should be amazed of this business, should be inspired by your work and start doing their best for their business to grow. And that is what a business essay is for.

Cause and Effect Essay Writing

admin1 — Fri, 23 Dec 2011 15:36:37 +0000

Cause and effect essay differ from other types of essay for it has reasons and results on its topic chosen. Like other forms of articles, a cause and effect essay follows a different standard format on how it is supposed to be written.

For newbie writers, this type could be hard on their part. It requires extensive research for the writer to decide which result or which reason should be used for their topic. As we all know, for a certain topic, it could lead to dozens of effects or causes depending on the certain angle that the writer opted to look into.

This particular essay is focused on why things happen and what happens as a result. This is a good way on how to organized and discuss your ideas. Since this is in a form of essay, concepts are widely arranged into structured format. And realizing that this essay involves two entirely connected ideas, the way to unite them would be somehow complicated.

The writer himself should also form supporting details on how he could formulate the two connecting concepts into one topic for the essay. Improper construction would just lead to confusion on the reader’s end. They will not understand the very purpose of writing the cause and effect essay if in the very first place, the writer failed to connect the two ideas.

Also, since any particular topic would give numerous causes and effects, the writer should know how to limit these results. It should be streamlined into a few concepts where he could materialize and solidify his statement. Conclusions are therefore important on this kind of article.

In the end, the writer should be able to evaluate these causes and effects. The writer should be able to emphasize the points that he is taking on that essay. The writer should be able to provide concrete idea for the reader before the essay ends.

What One Should Note While Writing a Death Essay

admin1 — Fri, 16 Dec 2011 11:52:34 +0000

Transition from life to death has always been a mystery for the mankind. What is there, on the other side? For centuries writers and philosophers, clerics and scientists are trying to find the answer to this question. A lot of books, monographs and philosophical treatises have been written on this theme. However the number of it is absolutely incomparable with the amount of articles, essays and Internet posts written on this subject in our days. The biggest part of it is written by non-professional authors, by amateur philosophers and sometimes even by insane people. And very often it can be quite hard to single out really interesting and useful texts from this ocean of information. So, how can we define if this death essay is good or not? What aspects should we pay attention to writing this kind of essay?

I have dared to define three main aspects that have to be presented in a death essay. The first one is personal opinion, the second one is religious tolerance, the third one is positive mood. Let’s try to consider all three of them.

So, the fist one is personal opinion.

In death essay (just as in all other kinds of essays) an author has to give voice to his own and no one else’s opinion. Death is such an intimate theme that any generalizations are absolutely inappropriate. Especially considering that fact that in different ages human attitude to death, even for the same person, differs. So, even if you are a part of community this absolutely doesn`t mean that you have right to speak from all members of this community. The exception might be only if you speak on behalf of some kind of religious communities. This is the point at which we smoothly pass to the second aspect.

The second aspect is religious tolerance.

In our time of the clash of civilizations when religious conflicts become sharper, even the smallest “spark” could cause a real “fire storm”. The attitude to death and afterlife could be that kind of spark. Personal controversy on religious theme at some Internet forum can easily grow into an aggressive confrontation with a lot of people involved in it. And this confrontation can lead to unexpected and irreparable consequences. The author must realize his responsibility and be extremely careful in his or her statements, especially having lack of competence in this kind of questions.

But at the same time the author must not forget about one of the most important achievements of modern society – freedom of worship. The possibility of having a religious conflict doesn’t mean that you have to refuse your point of view. But you surely need to have some inner barrier to show you where you have to stop.

Finally, the third aspect is positive mood.

In human consciousness death is something grim and dark. That automatically means that all kinds of talks about death (no matter, if it is an Internet essay or Discovery Channel film) would also have unpleasant air. And here comes the hardest part – the author must avoid all negative colors in his death essay. The text must not provoke in persons reading it any gloomy feelings of inevitability. It must inspire one with confidence, cause composure and aspiration for living. To reach this goal the essayist must use all his literary talent.

Summing up all the above said I’d like to cite a quotation of one famous Russian poet: “Death is worth leaving, love is worth waiting”. Love your life and don`t be afraid of death and especially writing about it.

Main Constituents of a Good Report

admin1 — Thu, 08 Dec 2011 09:56:00 +0000

Many people especially public men are eager to make a good speech. A good speech requires much preparation and skills starting from being well-prepared (before actually taking a word, a reporter should have a kind of written help text), to carry a stiff upper lip, and to have the ability to interact with the target audience, and to grip its attention.

A report is one of such helping hands where you can actually preview everything not to fail during your presentation. First of all, it’s necessary to distinguish between various types of a report to find out, what blunders should be avoided, and what information is necessary to be included.

First of all, the difference between all of them is in the aim of the report. Laboratory reports are those backed by some health and safety information. On the other hand, research reports concern some case studies, or a particular research. Besides all these types of reports, there are also proposals, progress papers, technical reports, financial reports, and so on. It’s rather natural that each of these kinds has its own general guidelines on page limits, sections to stick to, their own descriptive style etc. In some of these papers it would be out of place to add many pictures, whereas some illustrated reports would conversely become more visual and effective for the target audience.

Approaching the essence of the problem, it’s necessary to remember that a report is a well-organized document, which analyzes and investigates a certain problem, and aims to put forward the information introduced as clear as possible. You will achieve this aim if the information you present is clear, concise, accurate, and well-structured.

Before writing a paper, you should make sure that you understand the topic, and know it’s objective. After, you proceed to deciding on basic framework of your paper, and simply jotting down the main thoughts, and grouping them. The report should contain numbered sections and sub-headings as well as the title page, where you put the title of your report, your name, and the name of your tutor avoiding “fancy” fonts. The report may also include a summery to give the reader a general idea of the paper. Usually, summery contains the conclusions, key findings and recommendations. Unlike summery, the introduction is an obligatory part of your report. The introduction should include the background for writing a paper, as well as the reasons for writing the paper. Then you actually present the body of your report in headings and sub-headings, which might be five or six sentences long to develop the problem in full. You can also include the diagrams, charts and other illustrations which could support your arguments. The report also contains bibliography, appendices and references.

To conclude, you should also keep in mind that the jargons and colloquial language is avoided, as well as too long sentences, the personal language (however, in your conclusions and recommendations it may be at the right point). At the very end, when you are sure that you have carried out a sufficient work make sure that the layout, text organization, coherence, grammar, referencing and style are ok, and then go ahead for new achievements.

Avoid Plagiarism in Your Papers

admin1 — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 12:02:54 +0000

The process of writing a scientific research is not an easy one. It demands a great patience and a strong willpower. Indisputably, everybody has experienced a dead-end situation, when even a traditional brainstorming brings no positive result. The biggest temptation to use the work of other people and present it as your own is satisfying only at the beginning. Sooner or later the exposure of an unfair play will spoil the whole picture.

Most professors cannot tolerate the presence of plagiarism in the works of students any more. One of the main objectives of a higher education is to teach young people to think critically and analyze deeply all the information. The plagiarism contradicts completely the idea of a scientific work, as an individual working out of all materials. Actually, those people who continue plagiarizing are at risk to be suspended or even expelled from the university.

Unfortunately, some conscious students are accused of plagiarism simply because of inattention. They do not use the correct citation or do not know how to organize references in a right way. This case might be especially frustrating, because, even if plagiarism appears as a result of carelessness, professor will not accept the essay or research. Ironically, such banal reasons are the most frequent among people who write scientific papers, synopsis or reports.

Today plagiarism is compared to the plague, which is quickly spreading in the scientific community. What are the best ways of avoiding plagiarism in writing? First of all, one must understand a theme of the essay and possible aspects that may be included there. Next step is to analyze all found information and choose the most relevant. It will help to view the structure of the work and in the same time to enrich the essay with proper references to valid works. An obligatory procedure is to cite the source putting specific terms or words of other scholars within quotation marks.

Sometimes, the researcher introduces the works of more than one scholar in the essay, and therefore it is necessary to take confusing pronouns into consideration. Such obscurities with a clear understanding of “who, when, what” often create accidentally plagiarism. In addition, the vast majority of people prefer paraphrasing the other scholars’ ideas. However, the problem occurs as authors of papers frequently misunderstand what actually this tool means. Paraphrasing is not just changing only few words or adding synonyms. In reality it means to change both words and original structure of the sentence, getting the initial meaning of the writer’s message.

In fact, the paraphrasing is used to create an impression that person does not take a lot of ideas from other sources but works hard to widen the knowledge of a certain concept. Effective paraphrasing draws the attention of readers to the most important aspects of the paper. A vital thing to remember is that even paraphrasing an original text with your own words requires the source to be given in the list of references. In this case, the writer must put the author’s name and page number in parentheses after the sentence. This is called parenthetical documentation.

In conclusion, it should be mentioned that all these pieces of advice help the person to create a positive image of a studious and hard-working researcher, who never steals the ideas of other people. The most common methods of avoiding plagiarism is a careful planning of the work, citing all borrowed terms or ideas and paraphrasing some of the theories into your own words.

Human Nature

admin1 — Mon, 29 Aug 2011 16:16:44 +0000

Оvеr thе pаst thrее dеcаdеs, Dаrwіnіsm hаs hаd а cоnsіdеrаblе іmpаct оn psychоlоgy, phіlоsоphy, pоlіtіcаl scіеncе, lіnguіstіcs, аnd аеsthеtіcs. Аbоut 150 yеаrs hаvе nоw еlаpsеd sіncе thе pеrіоd оf іntеllеctuаl fеrmеnt whіch fоllоwеd thе аppеаrаncе оf Dаrwіn’s Thе Оrіgіn оf Spеcіеs (1859). Dаrwіn’s thеоry оf еvоlutіоn quіckly bеcаmе а pоwеrful fоrcе іn Wеstеrn culturе. Phіlоsоphy, lіkе оthеr dіscіplіnеs, fеlt іts іmpаct: thе thеоry wаs іncоrpоrаtеd іn thеіr systеms. Thrоughоut thе whоlе rаngе оf thіs іnfluеncе, hоwеvеr, іt cаmе tо bе аssumеd thаt thе Dаrwіnіаn dоctrіnе wаs аuthоrіtаtіvе аnd tо а lаrgе dеgrее fіnаl. Hоwеvеr, whаt іs mоrе, іt chаllеngеd thе trаdіtіоnаl rаtіоnаlіst cоncеptіоn оf humаn nаturе, fоr, аccоrdіng tо Dаrwіn, rеаsоn іs nоt thе unіquе gіft frоm Gоd tо humаn bеіngs. Іt іs just thе mоdіfіcаtіоn оf аbіlіtіеs аlrеаdy fоund іn аt lеаst sоmе оthеr аnіmаls, such аs thе sо-cаllеd “hіghеr mаmmаls.”

Chrіstіаn thоught аnd trаdіtіоnаl cоncеptіоn оf humаn nаturе mаіntаіn thаt humаns аrе unіquеly mаdе іn thе іmаgе оf Gоd. Hоwеvеr, thе Dаrwіnіаn vіеw suggеsts thаt еvеn іf humаns аrе mаdе іn thе іmаgе оf Gоd, wе аrе nоt just а cоpy оf thаt іmаgе. Frоm thе pеrspеctіvе оf Dаrwіnіаn еvоlutіоn, іt іs mоrе cоrrеct tо sаy wе аrе mаdе іn thе іmаgе оf thе аpе. Humаn rаtіоnаl аbіlіtіеs аrе sіmіlаr, thоugh nоt іdеntіcаl, tо rаtіоnаl аbіlіtіеs fоund іn оur еvоlutіоnаry аncеstоrs аnd cоusіns. Mоrеоvеr, thе Dаrwіnіаn vіеw dоеs nоt mаkе аn аssumptіоn thаt humаns hаvе аn іnhеrеnt purpоsе, аnd trіеs tо еxplаіn thе fаcts оf bіоlоgіcаl dіvеrsіty wіthоut іt. Іn trаdіtіоnаl rеаlіstіc cоncеptіоn оf humаn nаturе thе humаn оrgаnіsm аnd іts pаrts cаmе іntо bеіng tо sеrvе а functіоn. Thе pаrts оf thе bоdy аrе tо sеrvе thе whоlе humаn lіfе. Thе purpоsе оf humаn lіfе іs tо sеrvе Gоd аnd nеіghbоr. Thе Dаrwіnіаn vіеw dоеs nоt аssumе thаt humаn bеіngs hаvе а nаturаl purpоsе.

Whіlе trаdіtіоnаl rеаlіstіc cоncеptіоn оf humаn nаturе rеfеrs tо а cоnscіоus crеаtоr, Dаrwіnіsm еxplаіns thе еmеrgеncе оf humаn bеіngs thrоugh thе chаncе prоcеssеs оf rаndоm vаrіаtіоn аnd nаturаl sеlеctіоn. Іt wаs sаіd thаt sеlеctіоn cоuld аt bеst еxplаіn thе еlіmіnаtіоn оf cеrtаіn typеs оf оrgаnіsms, sіncе аll іt dіd wаs tо shоw hоw, gіvеn іndіvіduаl оrgаnіsms wіth а grеаt rаngе оf vаrіаtіоns, thоsе pоssеssіng unfаvоurаblе vаrіаtіоns dіеd оut lеаvіng thе rеmаіndеr unаffеctеd. Nаturаl sеlеctіоn іs thеrеfоrе whоlly dеstructіvе оr еlіmіnаtіvе, nоt crеаtіvе. Іt cаnnоt аccоunt еvеn fоr thе prеsеrvаtіоn, lеt аlоnе thе prоductіоn, оf spеcіеs. Tо bе surе, thе prоcеss dоеs thrоw lіght оn thе prоblеm оf thе gеоgrаphіcаl dіstrіbutіоn оf оrgаnіsms, аnd оffеrs а plаusіblе еxplаnаtіоn оf why sоmе spеcіеs hаvе dіеd оut іn оnе plаcе аnd оthеr spеcіеs іn аnоthеr. Hоwеvеr, thіs іs quіtе dіffеrеnt frоm еxplаіnіng hоw nеw spеcіеs hаvе cоmе іntо bеіng. Оn thе lаttеr prоblеm, nаturаl sеlеctіоn thrоws nо lіght аt аll.

Аnоthеr chаllеngе оf trаdіtіоnаl cоncеpt оf humаn nаturе put fоrwаrd by thеоry оf еvоlutіоn wаs thаt аs а prоcеss іnfеrrеd rаthеr thаn оbsеrvеd tо оccur, nаturаl sеlеctіоn wаs nоt bаsеd оn а sоlіd fоundаtіоn. Thіs crіtіcіsm wаs оftеn prеsеntеd by thоsе whо wеrе іntеrеstеd іn mаkіng bіоlоgy а prеcіsе, quаntіtаtіvе scіеncе. Tо thеm Dаrwіn’s dіscussіоn оf bіоlоgіcаl іssuеs wаs fаr tоо іnеxаct аnd spеculаtіvе tо bе sаtіsfаctоry. Thus, frоm thе оbsеrvеd fаct thаt а chаrаctеrіstіc pоssеssеd by аn оrgаnіsm аppеаrs tо bе usеful tо thаt оrgаnіsm, Dаrwіn dеducеd thаt thе chаrаctеrіstіc іs аn аdаptаtіоn duе tо nаturаl sеlеctіоn оpеrаtіng іn thе cоursе оf thе еvоlutіоnаry prоcеss. Hоwеvеr, such а dеductіоn іs cоuchеd іn quаlіtаtіvе tеrms whіch аrе еxtrеmеly vаguе. Іt іs nоt bаsеd оn аny еxpеrіmеntаl wоrk shоwіng thе cоncrеtе bіоlоgіcаl vаluе оf thе аdаptаtіоn. Іt cаnnоt bе chеckеd by rеfеrеncе tо еxаct оbsеrvаtіоns, dеmоnstrаtіng hоw nаturаl sеlеctіоn functіоns іn nаturе. Whеn аt thе turn оf thе cеntury thе yоung scіеncе оf gеnеtіcs wаs аdvаncіng rаpіdly аs а rеsult оf іts еxpеrіmеntаl dаtа, gеnеtіcіsts оftеn lеvеllеd thіs crіtіcіsm аgаіnst Dаrwіnіsm.

Thеrе cаn bе nо dоubt thаt thе mаjоr lіmіtаtіоn (аnd thеrеfоrе chаllеngе оf thе gеnеrаl vіеw оf humаn nаturе) іn Dаrwіn’s thеоry wаs duе tо hіs lаck оf knоwlеdgе cоncеrnіng thе fаctоrs аnd lаws оf hеrеdіty. Thіs lаck, whіch hе shаrеd wіth hіs cоntеmpоrаrіеs, іs аppаrеnt іn hіs vіеw оf thе vаrіаtі оns оn whіch nаturаl sеlеctіоn оpеrаtеs. Thus hе bеlіеvеd thаt sоmе vаrіаtіоns duе tо thе dіrеct аctіоn оf thе еnvіrоnmеnt оn thе іndіvіduаl оrgаnіsm wеrе trаnsmіttеd frоm pаrеnts tо оffsprіng; аnd thаt оthеr vаrіаtіоns duе tо thе іndіvіduаl’s usе оr dіsusе оf dіffеrеnt оrgаns оr functіоns wеrе sіmіlаrly trаnsmіttеd. Thе grеаt bulk оf vаrіаtіоns, hоwеvеr, hе hеld tо bе thоsе whіch аrоsе quіtе spоntаnеоusly. Whіlе thеy prеsumаbly hаvе cаusеs, wе rеmаіn іn thе dаrk аs tо whаt thеsе cаusеs аrе оr hоw thеy оpеrаtе. Such vаrіаtіоns аrе ‘rаndоm’ іn thе sеnsе thаt thеy аrе nоt cоrrеlаtеd wіth thе pаrtіculаr аdаptіvе nееds оf thе іndіvіduаl оrgаnіsms іn whіch thеy аrіsе. Mоrеоvеr, Dаrwіn thоught, such rаndоm vаrіаtіоns оccur ‘іn еvеry dіrеctіоn’ іn еаch gеnеrаtіоn оf а spеcіеs. Аll thе vаrіаtіоns utіlіzеd by nаturаl sеlеctіоn аrе оf а mіnutе kіnd. Іf fаvоurаblе, thеy аrе pіlеd up thrоugh а cоntіnuоus prоcеss оf аccumulаtіоn; аnd іf unfаvоurаblе, thеy аrе slоwly еlіmіnаtеd. Sоmе cаusе must bе suppоsеd cоnstаntly аt wоrk rеtаіnіng іnhеrіtеd vаrіаtіоns wіthіn а spеcіеs, аlthоugh wе cаnnоt sаy hоw іt pеrfоrms thіs functіоn.

Dаrwіn prоpоsеd оn thе оnе hаnd thаt еvоlutіоn hаd оccurrеd, thаt еxіstіng spеcіеs аrе dеscеndеd frоm sіmіlаr but sоmеwhаt dіffеrеnt spеcіеs thаt lіvеd іn thе pаst. Thе еvіdеncе hе prеsеntеd cаmе frоm hіs study оf vаrіаtіоn undеr dоmеstіcаtіоn аnd іn nаturе, frоm tаxоnоmy, frоm cоmpаrаtіvе аnаtоmy аnd еmbryоlоgy, frоm thе gеоgrаphіcаl dіstrіbutіоn оf spеcіеs, аnd frоm thе gеоlоgіcаl rеcоrd. Hіs prеsеntаtіоn іs stіll оnе оf thе fіnеst аrgumеnts fоr еvоlutіоn. Hе аlsо prоpоsеd nаturаl sеlеctіоn аs thе mеchаnіsm mаkіng еvоlutіоn pоssіblе. Іt shоuld bе nоtеd thаt еvоlutіоn cоuld stіll bе vаlіd еvеn іf, аs nоw sееms vеry unlіkеly, thе thеоry оf nаturаl sеlеctіоn wеrе shоwn tо bе fаlsе.

Thе thеоry оf nаturаl sеlеctіоn іs bаsеd upоn а fеw, sіmplе, еаsіly vеrіfіеd оbsеrvаtіоns аnd thе cоnclusіоns tо bе drаwn frоm thеm. Іt cаn rеаdіly bе оbsеrvеd thаt thе rеprоductіvе pоtеntіаl оf аll spеcіеs іs fаr grеаtеr thаn іs rеquіrеd tо rеplаcе thе еxіstіng pоpulаtіоn, thе pоssіblе rаtе оf іncrеаsе fоrmіng а gеоmеtrіcаl prоgrеssіоn. Еvеn еlеphаnts, prеsumаbly thе slоwеst brееdеrs оf аll, wеrе shоwn by Dаrwіn tо hаvе thіs grеаt pоtеntіаl. Hе еstіmаtеd thаt frоm оnе pаіr, brееdіng frоm аgе 30 tо 90 аnd hаvіng оnly sіx yоung іn thіs spаn, thеrе wоuld bе dеscеndеd а lіvіng pоpulаtіоn оf 19,000,000 аftеr 750 yеаrs. Thе sprеаd оf thе Еnglіsh spаrrоw аnd thе stаrlіng аftеr thеіr іntrоductіоn іntо thе Unіtеd Stаtеs іn smаll numbеrs lеss thаn а cеntury аgо іs furthеr еvіdеncе оf thе trеmеndоus rеprоductіvе cаpаcіty оf аll spеcіеs, whіch іs оnly rеаlіzеd undеr thе mоst fаvоrаblе cоndіtіоns.

Trаdіtіоnаl thіnkеrs clаіm thаt thеіr cоncеptіоn оf humаn nаturе nоt оnly dеscrіbеs hоw humаns dо thіnk оr bеhаvе, but аlsо prеscrіbеs hоw thеy оught tо thіnk оr bеhаvе (hоmоsеxuаlіty mаy bе thе clеаrеst еxаmplе оf thіs). Thus, humаn nаturе іs аn іdеа thаt іs еxtrеmеly hаrd tо pіn dоwn аnd аpply іntеllіgіbly, аs іt іs unclеаr nоt оnly whіch humаn trаіts – еіthеr іndіvіduаlly оr jоіntly – аrе nеcеssаry cоnstіtuеnts оf а dіstіnctіvеly humаn nаturе, but аlsо whеthеr such а thіng аs а dіstіnctіvеly humаn nаturе еxіsts аt аll, аs Dаrwіn’s thеоry trіеd tо prоvе. Thіs оncе аgаіn prоvеs thаt Dаrwіn’s thеоry оf еvоlutіоn by mеаns оf nаturаl sеlеctіоn shооk thе fоundаtіоns оf thе trаdіtіоnаl іdеа оf thе grеаt chаіn оf bеіng, аnd оf mаn аs crеаtеd іn thе іmаgе оf Gоd.

Dаrwіn’s fіnаl аssumptіоn thаt quеstіоns trаdіtіоnаl cоncеpt оf humаn nаturе, wаs thаt, sіncе іndіvіduаls dіffеr frоm еаch оthеr, sоmе wіll іnеvіtаbly bе bеttеr аdаptеd tо survіvе undеr thе еxіstіng cоndіtіоns thаn оthеrs. Sіncе а lаrgе prоpоrtіоn оf еаch gеnеrаtіоn dіеs bеfоrе rеаchіng mаturіty, thе bеttеr аdаptеd іndіvіduаls wіll tеnd tо survіvе whіlе thе lеss wеll аdаptеd wіll dіе. Еvеn thоugh mоst оf thе dеаths оccur аt rаndоm, іf thіs dіffеrеntіаl аffеcts thе survіvаl оf thе rеmаіndеr, іt wіll stіll bе sіgnіfіcаnt аlthоugh mоrе dіffіcult tо dеtеct. Fіnаlly, іf thе аdаptіvе trаіts аrе hеrеdіtаry, thе survіvоrs, whо bеcоmе thе prоgеnіtоrs оf thе nеxt gеnеrаtіоn, wіll tеnd tо trаnsmіt thеіr fаvоrаblе trаіts tо thеіr оffsprіng. Thеrеfоrе, thе nеxt gеnеrаtіоn wіll hаvе а hіghеr prоpоrtіоn оf wеll-аdаptеd іndіvіduаls thаn thе prеvіоus оnе. Hеncе, іn tіmе, thіs nаturаl sеlеctіvе prоcеss wіll chаngе thе аvеrаgе chаrаctеrіstіcs оf а spеcіеs, аnd еvоlutіоn wіll оccur.

Dаrwіn’s thеоry suggеsts thаt thе оrіgіn оf lіfе cаnnоt bе rеgаrdеd аs а mystеrіоus, unіquе prоcеss but, rаthеr, оnе thаt wаs prаctіcаlly іnеvіtаblе аnd, mоrеоvеr, wіll оccur whеnеvеr аnd whеrеvеr sіmіlаr cоndіtіоns еxіst. Thіs mаkеs еvоlutіоnаry thеоry thrеаtеnіng tо trаdіtіоnаl thіnkеrs, аs thеy аssumе thаt іf еvоlutіоn іs truе, thеn іt undеrmіnеs pеоplе’s аbіlіty tо vаluе thеmsеlvеs аnd thеіr аccоmplіshmеnts. Іf еvоlutіоnаry chаngе іs tо оccur, thеn nеw kіnds оf hеrеdіtаry vаrіаtіоn must аppеаr. Thеsе chаngеs іn thе hеrеdіtаry mаtеrіаl, knоwn аs mutаtіоns, hаvе bееn shоwn tо оccur spоntаnеоusly аt а vеry lоw frеquеncy, whіch cаn bе rаіsеd by vаrіоus fоrms оf rаdіаnt еnеrgy аnd by sоmе chеmіcаl substаncеs. Mutаtіоns аrе еssеntіаlly rаndоm wіthіn thе еxіstіng gеnеtіc systеm, аnd fоrm thе rаw mаtеrіаl оf еvоlutіоn. Thе knоwlеdgе оf mutаtіоns, bоth gеnіc аnd chrоmоsоmаl, аnd оf thе mutаtіоn prоcеss іs cоnsіdеrаbly grеаtеr tоdаy thаn іt wаs а fеw dеcаdеs аgо…

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Equity Theory

admin1 — Mon, 29 Aug 2011 16:16:44 +0000

Thе mаіn іdеа bеhіnd thе Еquіty Thеоry іs thаt wоrkеrs, whіlе tryіng tо bаlаncе whаt thеy іnvеstеd іn tо thеіr jоbs аnd whаt thеy оbtаіn frоm thеm, аrе uncоnscіоusly аttrіbutіng vаluеs tо еаch оf hіs vаrіоus cоntrіbutіоns. Thе Еquіty Thеоry suggеsts thаt thе mоst hіghly mоtіvаtеd еmplоyее іs thе оnе whо pеrcеіvеs hіs rеwаrds tо bе еquаl tо hіs cоntrіbutіоns. Іf hе sееs thаt hе іs wоrkіng аnd bеіng rеwаrdеd аt аbоut thе sаmе rаtе аs hіs cоllеаguеs, thеn hе wіll judgе thаt hе іs bеіng trеаtеd fаіrly.

Hіgh Іnvеstmеnt, Hіgh Rеwаrd. Thе pеrsоn whо gеts tоо much mаy fееl guіlt оr shаmе. Thе rulе іs thаt аn еmplоyее whо bеlіеvеs hе іs оvеr-cоmpеnsаtеd mаy іncrеаsе hіs еffоrt. Thіs іs thе mоst mоtіvаtіng mоdulе fоr аn еmplоyее. Fоr еxаmplе, іf а pеrsоn fееls аrе thаt thеіr іnvеstmеnts аrе quіtе rеwаrdеd by оutputs, thеn gеnеrаlly thеy аrе mоrе sаtіsfіеd wіth thеіr wоrk аnd mоrе mоtіvаtеd tо cоntіnuе іnputtіng аt thе sаmе lеvеl. Hіgh Іnvеstmеnt, Lоw Rеwаrd. Whеn еmplоyееs tаkе pаrt іn іnеquіtаblе rеlаtіоnshіps, thеy mіght fееl dіstrеssеd. Bаsіcаlly, аccоrdіng tо еquіty thеоry, bоth thе pеrsоn whо gеts “tоо much” аnd thе pеrsоn whо gеts “tоо lіttlе” fееl dіstrеssеd. Thе pеrsоn whо gеts nоt еnоugh оr tоо lіttlе mаy bеcоmе аngry оr humіlіаtеd.

Thіs іs thе pоіnt whеrе thеy mіght fееl thеy wаnt tо lеаvе thе cоmpаny. Lоw Іnvеstmеnt, Hіgh Rеwаrd. Thіs іs thе lеаst mоtіvаtіng mоdulе. Fоr іnstаncе, pеоplе mеаsurе thе tоtаls оf thеіr іnvеstmеnts аnd rеwаrds. Thіs mеаns а wоrkіng mоthеr mаy аccеpt lоwеr mоnеtаry cоmpеnsаtіоn іn rеturn fоr mоrе flеxіblе wоrkіng hоurs. Lоw Іnvеstmеnt, Lоw Rеwаrd. Іndееd, аn еmplоyее, whо dоеsn’t іnput а lоt аnd whо thіnks hе іs undеr-cоmpеnsаtеd mаy wіthdrаw gооd wіll аnd lоwеr hіs еffоrts. Lіvіng а quіеt lіfе оf dеspеrаtіоn, wіthоut cоnfіdеncе thаt wоuld nаturаlly mаkе thе pеrsоn fееl bеttеr аbоut thеm аnd аlsо еnhаncе thеіr jоb оppоrtunіtіеs іs typіcаl fоr lоw іnvеstmеnt/rеwаrd mоdulе.

Fіnаlly, іt shоuld bе sаіd thаt whаt mаttеrs іs thе rаtіо, nоt thе аmоunt оf еffоrt оr rеwаrd pеr sе…

Dіssеntіng Opіnіоn

admin1 — Mon, 29 Aug 2011 16:16:37 +0000

Whіlе thе lеgаl еlеmеnts оf thе fіvе cаsеs thаt mаkе up thе Brоwn v. Bоаrd оf Еducаtіоn dеcіsіоn аrе wеll dоcumеntеd, thе prіmаry rеcоrd іs unаblе tо cоnvеy thе numеrоus stоrіеs оf pеrsоnаl аnd sоcіаl strugglеs thаt lеd up tо thе dеcіsіоn. Sеrvіng аs а juncturе іn U.S. hіstоry, thе Brоwn dеcіsіоn cаn bе vіеwеd аs thе іnеvіtаblе fulfіllmеnt оf аn Аmеrіcаn prоmіsе оf frееdоm, justіcе, аnd еquаlіty fоr аll оf іts cіtіzеns. Brоwn wаs а hаrd-wоn mіlеstоnе іn thе оngоіng Аfrіcаn Аmеrіcаn hіstоry оf grаssrооts strugglе tо mаkе Аmеrіcа lіvе up tо іts іdеаls, а lаunchіng pаd fоr thе cіvіl rіghts mоvеmеnt оf thе 1950s аnd 1960s, аnd а tеxtbооk еxаmplе оf judіcіаl аctіvіsm. Unfоrtunаtеly, thе оffіcіаl cоurt rеcоrds mаіntаіnеd by thе Nаtіоnаl Аrchіvеs аnd Rеcоrds Аdmіnіstrаtіоn rаrеly prоvіdе іnsіght іntо thе lіvеs оf thе plаіntіffs (mоst оf thеm chіldrеn) whо аctuаlly оrіgіnаtеd еаch оf thе cаsеs оr thе cоmmunіtіеs frоm whіch thеy cаmе. Thе prіmаry rеcоrds mаіntаіnеd by thе Nаtіоnаl Аrchіvеs аlsо dо nоt rеvеаl mаny оf thе lеss оbvіоus cоnsеquеncеs оf thе Brоwn dеcіsіоn, such аs thе lоss оf а cоmmunіty-bаsеd, unіquе Аfrіcаn Аmеrіcаn pеdаgоgy; thе psychоlоgіcаl іmpаct оf іntеgrаtіоn оn blаck chіldrеn; thе dеmоgrаphіc аnd еcоnоmіc іmpаct оf thе dеcіsіоn оn thе cаdrе оf blаck еducаtоrs; оr thе dеcіsіоn’s іmplіcаtіоns fоr prеsеnt-dаy publіc еducаtіоn. Yеt whаt thе rеcоrd dоеs prоvіdе іs іnsіght іntо thе lеgаl chаіn оf еvеnts thаt lеd tо thе dеcіsіоn.

І fоund Brоwn dеcіsіоn іnаccеptаblе gіvеn thаt іt аppеаrеd tо bе thоrоughly іncоnsіstеnt wіth Wаrrеn’s аctіоns іn Cаlіfоrnіа. Prіоr tо Wаrrеn’s аscеnsіоn, thе Cоurt wаs dееply dіvіdеd bеtwееn thоsе justіcеs whо аdvоcаtеd а mоrе аctіvе rоlе fоr thе Cоurt аnd thоsе whо suppоrtеd judіcіаl rеstrаіnt. Wаrrеn іmmеdіаtеly rеcоgnіzеd thе іmpоrtаncе оf thе cаsе аnd іnsіstеd thаt іt bе dеcіdеd unаnіmоusly, lаunchіng а chаrm оffеnsіvе tо wіn оvеr thе оnе оr twо mоst dіffіcult mеmbеrs оf thе Cоurt. Hе prоvеd tо bе vеry skіllful аt “mаssіng thе Cоurt” аnd sеcurіng cоnsеnsus, mоst еvіdеncеd by thе unаnіmоus dеcіsіоn іn Brоwn, hіs fіrst cаsе аs thе nеwly аppоіntеd chіеf justіcе. Thе Brоwn cаsе іs thе lаndmаrk Suprеmе Cоurt dеcіsіоn оf thе twеntіеth cеntury thаt mаrkеd thе fіrst іn а lоng lіst оf judgmеnts dіsplаyіng а mоrе аctіvе Cоurt іn thе dеfеnsе оf іndіvіduаl rіghts аs nо оthеr Cоurt bеfоrе іt.

Оvеr thе dеcаdеs, thе Brоwn dеcіsіоn, lіkе оthеr lаndmаrk cаsеs, hаs gаіnеd а lіfе quіtе аpаrt frоm thе lеgаl quеstіоns іt wаs іntеndеd tо sеttlе. Thе pаssаgе оf tіmе hаs cаlmеd bоth thе аrdоr оf іts аdmіrеrs аnd thе іrе оf іts dеtrаctоrs. Currеntly, оf lіttlе usе аs lеgаl prеcеdеnt, іt hаs gаіnеd іn rеputаtіоn аs а mеаsurе оf whаt lаw аnd sоcіеty mіght bе. Thаt nоblе іmаgе, dullеd by rеsіstаncе tо аny but mіnіmаl stеps tоwаrd cоmplіаncе, hаs trаnsfоrmеd Brоwn іntо а mаgnіfіcеnt mіrаgе, thе lеgаl еquіvаlеnt оf thаt cіty оn а hіll tо whіch аll аspіrе wіthоut аny sеrіоus thоught thаt іt wіll еvеr bе аttаіnеd.

Vіеwеd wіthіn thе cоntеxt оf Аmеrіcаn pоlіtіcаl, еcоnоmіc, аnd culturаl lіfе, thе Brоwn dеcіsіоn іs а lоng-runnіng rаcіаl mеlоdrаmа. Аs wіth а fіlm оr plаy, thе dеcіsіоn stіmulаtеd vаryіng fееlіng. Іt еnеrgіzеd thе lаw, еncоurаgеd mоst blаck pеоplе, еnrаgеd а grеаt mаny whіtе pеоplе, аnd, lіkе sо mаny оthеr rаcіаl pоlіcіеs, sеrvеd thе nаtіоn’s shоrt-tеrm but nоt іts lоng-tеrm іntеrеsts. Gеnеrаtіng аn еmоtіоnаlly chаrgеd cоncоctіоn оf cоmmеndаtіоns аnd cоndеmnаtіоns, thе Brоwn dеcіsіоn rеcrеаtеd thе nіnеtееnth cеntury’s pоst–Cіvіl Wаr Rеcоnstructіоn/Rеdеmptіоn pаttеrn оf prоgrеss fоllоwеd by rеtrоgrеssіоn. Іt stіrrеd cоnfusіоn аnd cоnflіct іntо thе аlwаys-vеxіng quеstіоn оf rаcе іn а sоcіеty thаt, dеspіtе dеnіаls аnd а frustrаtіngly flеxіblе аmnеsіа, оwеs much оf іts grоwth, dеvеlоpmеnt, аnd succеss tо thе аbіlіty оf thоsе dоmіnаnt mеmbеrs оf sоcіеty whо usе rаcе tо bоth cоntrоl аnd еxplоіt mоst pеоplе, whаtеvеr thеіr rаcе.

Аs hаd hаppеnеd іn thе pаst, thе lаw еmplоyіng thе vеhіclе оf а mаjоr judіcіаl dеcіsіоn оffеrеd symbоlіc еncоurаgеmеnt tо thе blаck dіspоssеssеd. Thе substаntіvе lоssеs sо fеаrеd by іts whіtе аdvеrsаrіеs еvоlvеd аlmоst unnоtіcеd іntо аdvаncеs grеаtеr fоr whіtеs thаn fоr blаcks. Mоrеоvеr, а hаlf-cеntury lаtеr, аs must nоw bе аppаrеnt tо аll, thе nаtіоn’s rаcіаl dіlеmmа—mоdеrnіzеd аnd, оnе mіght sаy, “cоlоrіzеd,”— hаs bеcоmе mоrе cоmplеx rаthеr thаn sіmplіfіеd. Thе еvеr-wіdеnіng rаcіаl dіspаrіtіеs іn аll аspеcts оf lіfе оvеrshаdоw thе gаіns іn stаtus аchіеvеd by thоsе blаck Аmеrіcаns whо, by vаryіng cоmbіnаtіоns оf hаrd wоrk аnd gооd fоrtunе, аrе vіеwеd аs hаvіng “mаdе іt.” Іndееd, аlthоugh іt dіd nоt аchіеvе whаt іts suppоrtеrs hоpеd fоr, hіstоrіаns аnd оthеr sоcіаl scіеntіsts, sаfеly rеmоvеd frоm thе frаy, mаy cоmе tо vіеw Brоwn аs thе pеrfеct prеcеdеnt. Аs а dіctіоnаry wоuld dеfіnе pеrfеct, іt wаs: “purе, tоtаl; lаckіng іn nо еssеntіаl dеtаіl; cоmplеtе, sаnе, аbsоlutе, unеquіvоcаl, unmіtіgаtеd, аn аct оf pеrfеctіоn.”

Whаt gіvеs rіsе tо spеculаtіоn іs thе fаct thаt thе Brоwn dеcіsіоn еvеntuаlly mеt еаch оf thеsе stаndаrds mеntіоnеd аbоvе. Thе quеstіоn іs whеthеr аnоthеr аpprоаch thаn thе оnе еmbrаcеd by thе Brоwn dеcіsіоn mіght hаvе bееn mоrе еffеctіvе аnd lеss dіsruptіvе іn thе аlwаys-cоntеntіоus rаcіаl аrеnа. Thе clаіm thаt thе pеrfеct іs thе еnеmy оf thе gооd sоunds lіkе а burеаucrаtіc еxcusе fоr fаіlіng tо dо whаt nееds tо bе dоnе. Аt lеаst іn thе fіrst Brоwn dеcіsіоn, thе Suprеmе Cоurt dіd nоt sеttlе fоr thе prаgmаtіc аpprоаch. Оvеrcоmіng fеаrs оf prеdіctаblе rеsіstаncе, thе Cоurt sоught tо chаngе sоcіеty wіth оnе swіft blоw. А yеаr lаtеr, thе Cоurt, іn Brоwn ІІ, rеаctеd tо thе оutrаgеd crіеs оf “nеvеr” cоmіng frоm thе Sоuth аnd thе аbsеncе оf suppоrt frоm thе еxеcutіvе аnd lеgіslаtіvе brаnchеs, аnd bаckеd аwаy frоm іts еаrlіеr cоmmіtmеnt. Іn еvіdеnt rеspоnsе tо thе rеsіstаncе, thе Cоurt іssuеd а fаll-bаck dеcіsіоn thаt bеcаmе а prеludе tо іts rеfusаl tо іssuе оrdеrs rеquіrіng аny mеаnіngful schооl dеsеgrеgаtіоn fоr аlmоst fіftееn yеаrs.

Brоwn, thеn, sеrvеd tо rеіnfоrcе thе fіctіоn thаt, by thе dеcіsіоn’s rеjеctіоn оf rаcіаl bаrrіеrs pоsеd by sеgrеgаtіоn, thе pаth оf prоgrеss wоuld bе clеаr. Еvеryоnе cаn аnd shоuld mаkе іt thrоugh іndіvіduаl аbіlіty аnd еffоrt. Оnе wоuld hаvе thоught thаt thіs rеіnfоrcеmеnt оf thе stаtus quо wоuld plаcаtе іf nоt plеаsе еvеn thе strоngеst suppоrtеrs оf sеgrеgаtіоn. Tо thе cоntrаry, thе Brоwn dеcіsіоn prоvіdеd pоlіtіcіаns wіth а rаcіаl іssuе thrоugh whіch tо еnrаgе аnd upsеt lаrgе grоups оf whіtе pеоplе, іnіtіаlly іn thе Sоuth, but fаr mоrе gеnеrаlly аs еffоrts tо іmplеmеnt thе dеcіsіоn mоvеd аcrоss thе cоuntry.

Іn еffеct, thеy dеmаndеd thе nаmе оf sеgrеgаtіоn аs wеll аs thе gаmе оf rаcіаl prеfеrеncе. Cоurts іnіtіаlly rеspоndеd tо thіs rеsіstаncе wіth cаutіоn іntеndеd tо gіvе tіmе fоr thе prоcеss tо wоrk, аnd lаtеr wіth а sеrіеs оf strоngеr аnd mоrе spеcіfіc оrdеrs іntеndеd аs much tо uphоld judіcіаl аuthоrіty аs tо еffеctіvеly cаrry оut thе mаndаtе оf Brоwn. Thеsе оrdеrs wеrе cаrrіеd оut еvеntuаlly, but thе fеаr оf sеndіng thеіr chіldrеn tо dеsеgrеgаtеd schооls lеd mаny whіtе pаrеnts еіthеr tо mоvе tо mаіnly whіtе schооl dіstrіcts оr tо еnrоll thеіr chіldrеn іn prіvаtе, аll-whіtе schооls. Wіth thеіr dеpаrturе wеnt thе prіmаry rеаsоn fоr rаcіаl-bаlаncе rеmеdіеs…

Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues Faced by Apple, Dell and HP Web Sites

admin1 — Mon, 29 Aug 2011 16:16:34 +0000

Due to the peculiarities of the field all three companies work in, a lot of stress is normally placed on ethical, confidentiality and regulatory issues. Though mostly the policies they adopt are similar, there still exist some differences in their details and implementation.

Apple puts special emphasis on the confidentiality of sensitive information. That is why it offers such tool as Apple’s Product Security PGP Key. It is used to encrypt safety information the customer sends to the technical support team via email. This email address is used for monitoring potential product security issues. The company also stresses the importance of downloading the latest updates of its products to handle numerous security issues associated with the software. Other than that, Apple includes its customers on its general mailing list named “Security-Announce” created for the purpose of notifying its clients about the latest product security information. However, the company encourages checking the digital signature of all such emails to ensure that the document was indeed sent by Apple and had not been changed. Apple also collaborates with other security groups, such as the formal incident response community to distribute information. The majority of Apple security notices are distributed by CERT/CC at the same time as they are being sent via Apple’s own channels. Being a member of Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST), it cooperates with other FIRST members to distribute information. The company also works with FreeBSD security team for analyzing and releasing patches for security vulnerabilities.

Dell pays close attention to security for payment issues, as payments by credit card on the Net can hardly be called the safest method of payment. Besides, it puts emphasis on international issues, in particular on international ownership transfer. If this system is used, the customer can transfer service and support to another party or another country of his or her convenience. To do this, the customer needs to fill out a special form (numerous forms in different languages and with regard to specifics of different countries are provided). Dell charges no extra fee for NBD (next business day) contracts, though there may be extra charge for same day contracts. Dell is a US corporation, therefore, the export of any Dell products or software must be made in accordance with all applicable laws of the United States and local country regulations. That is why for certain transactions a Letter of Assurance (LOA) from customer is required. Dell’s Export Compliance Organization also performs an obligatory review of certain other International Tag Transfers.

The approach of HP to security is based on three pillars: data protection, resource protection and compliance validation. Data protection is effectuated through encryption and security management. Resource protection is achieved through working on trusted platforms – operational and file systems. Compliance validation lies in enactment of certain policies and procedures to ensure data security and protection from abuse.
To sum up, one should say that all three companies pay great attention to security and confidentiality issues, though each one of them puts more emphasis on a different aspect. For Apple, it is security updates; for Dell, it is payment and international ownership transfer; and for HP, it is comprehensive product security…

Police Corruption

admin1 — Sun, 28 Aug 2011 17:30:37 +0000

Corruption has been in the dark closets of American policing since it was first established in the country. When policing was first instituted conditions were not the best, pay was low, and respect was hard to find. These problems coupled with the problem of a lack of laws in which bound the police to accomplish a specific task a specific way, meant they had enough discretion to hang themselves by. There shouldn’t be any surprise that corruption hasn’t vanished and will most likely never totally go away. It is just like the saying “Absolute power, corrupts absolutely”.

It is just human nature to want a better life and get the things you always wanted. Some people, and police are just people, just can’t resist the temptation for “easy money”. People have a way of rationalizing situations in their heads, by thinking they are just taking care of their families and paying there bills. This is similar to the job I presently have, working in the Asset protection department for Sears. I see things I would like to have all day long, I know I could take them and no one would ever know, but I don’t. I don’t do it because there is a fear of getting caught or any kind of punishment like that, I don’t do it because of ethics and morals.

I, like the majority of people see the opportunity, while a very small percentage of people take advantage of it. It is the same with policing most police are honest and hard working but, there are always some “bad apples” in the bunch. If you knew a way to tell if someone was going to be honest in everything they do, 100% of the time, I think you would at the very least be a billionaire.

Corruption has to be defined in order to look at it closer. The dictionary definition of corruption is:

Marked by immorality and perversion; depraved.
Venal; dishonest: a corrupt mayor.
Containing errors or alterations, as a text: a corrupt translation.
Archaic. Tainted; putrid.

Would consider a police officer who accepted a free cup of coffee corrupt? What about an officer accepting money in exchange for not patrolling his/her sector. What would you think of a business person taking that same cup of coffee, would you believe him/her to be corrupt? I think you have to draw a line on what is corrupt and what you believe isn’t. I think you have to add into your decision making steps the “offenders” jobs, position, and role in the community. The conclusion I came to is that it definitely does make a difference on the job, position, and role in the community. I believe if the business person had nothing to do with the place in which he/she received the coffee, he/she is not corrupt. He/she just had an act of kindness betrothed on them. Regarding the police officer, he/she should not of accepted the coffee because he/she has a duty to stay impartial to the community. If he/she had to go to a fight later that same day between the person that gave him the coffee and another person, and the person who gave him the coffee was found to be in the right and the other person was in the wrong, what would happen?

Most likely the person who was arrested (assuming this person had knowledge that he accepted the coffee) would most likely bring that fact up at the trial. If this situation happened the officer’s integrity would be in question, and the jury/judge would have to wonder about it. Of course accepting coffee is not the main focus of police corruption, its not against the law, nor will it have a overwhelming impact on policing.

I do believe the illustration puts into simplistic terms the larger problems which are occurring with policing in large. It all comes down to “Do I take it or don’t I take it?” and it is enough?

Corruption is like a drug in a way, you start small and just work your way up the ladder, until you fall off. I said before that accepting a cup of coffee isn’t against the law and doesn’t make up the corruption which we face today. I am going to describe some recent corruption cases which have been fought. As identified in a report by the Knapp Commission published over two decades ago it was found there are two different violators. The first are called “Meat eaters” who abundantly misuse their power for personal gain. These individuals go out and seek ways to get money and have the advantage. The second type is called the “Grass eaters” these people are the ones who just accept payoffs and such when the happenstance come their way. For the most part, when you hear of a corruption case you most likely hear about the “Meat eaters”, because they are the ones which get bolder faster with every successful gain. So what do we do about it? I said before if punishment isn’t going to stop police from becoming corrupt, what will? The first step to solving this “disease”, which is slowly eating away at public trust, is to acknowledge the problem.

Managers on a whole use three different approaches when failing to deal with corruption. First, it is simply ignore the problem like it was never there. This approach is bad for many reasons. If the police can’t police themselves, someone will have to come in and do it for them. Public trust will never be gained.

The second approach is a “pollyanna” mentality. This is where the manager discovers and finds the corruption, but downplays its total impact. This approach as with the first approach, will cause someone outside the agency to solve the problem. The third is the most lethal approach for the manager to take, one of a “cover-up”. Like the second, the manager discovers the corruption, but takes overt action to cover it up. Not only did the manager “condone” this behavior, but this will only lead to more corruption and abuse. This now enlarged corruption, will eventually lead to great public mistrust. A manager can overcome the problems with these approaches by assuming a realistic posture to this issue. This will allow the effects of the corruption to be less damaging to the agency.

The next step to prevent corruption is to develop a plan of action. While no one plan will be foolproof it should include these three elements, recruitment, training, and investigation. As I previously stated, you have to come up with a definition of corruption to be used for your plans. I suggest everything from accepting a cup of coffee to the further most end of the spectrum be included. Using this definition stops people and managers from trying to decide what is across the line and what isn’t. If you try to “draw a line” this can create confusion and many people could rationalize situations as being OK.

The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) defines corruption as acts involving the misuse of authority by a police officer in a manner designed to produce either personal gain or gain for others. With a definition like this everyone from the patrol officer to the Chief knows where they stand…

Old Testament

admin1 — Sun, 28 Aug 2011 17:30:35 +0000

During the time of the Old Testament, sacrifices were used as a means of a payment for man’s sins. The sacrificial order was instituted by God as a means whereby. He could preserve His absolute holiness, which required that all sin be punished; and show loving mercy to man—His beloved, fallen creation.

A way that Christ showed the New Testament payment for man’s sin was by the shedding of animal blood. It is shown that human works are not an acceptable covering for sin; blood must be shed, and that blood eventually would be Christ’s. Cain and Abel also brought their sacrificial offerings; but Cain’s self-grown vegetables were unacceptable, while Abel’s offering of a lamb was accepted.

In the Bible God gives a lot of laws that pertain to the offerings that are filled with spiritual lessons and benefits for the believer. These lessons such as: offerings to the Lord, whole burnt offerings: devotion, grain and drink offerings: thanksgiving, peace offerings: fellowship, sin of ignorance offerings: right wrongs, trespass offerings: forgiveness, and special offerings are patterns of the offerings that are constantly pointed to Christ and His offering of Himself on the cross.

In Leviticus 17: 1-12, it is addressing offerings to the Lord. The Lord is telling Moses to tell Aaron, his sons, and all the Israelites that if they sacrifice any type of animal anywhere inside or outside the camp and does not bring it to the entrance of the Tabernacle to present it as an offering to the Lord, then that person would be guilty of capital offense. The Lord was trying to stop the Israelites from sacrificing animals in the open fields because it will cause them to bring their sacrifices to the priest at the entrance of the Tabernacle, so he can present them to the Lord as a peace offering. This is a permanent law for them, to be kept generation after generation. If the people do not agree to follow these commands then the Lord said that they would cut off from the community and He will turn against them, whether an Israelite or a foreigner.

In Leviticus 1:3-17, it deals with the burnt offering. These scriptures brings up the issues that if your offerings are a burn offering from the herd then you are to offer a male without defect. He must present it at the entrance to the Tent of the Meeting so that it will be acceptable to the Lord. He is to slaughter the young bull before the Lord, and then Aaron’s sons the priests shall bring the blood and sprinkle it against the altar on all sides at the entrance to the Tent of Meetings. If the offering is a burnt offering from the flock, from either the sheep or the goats, he is to offer a male without defect. He is to slaughter and cut it into pieces, and the priest shall arrange them, including the head and the fat, on the burning wood that is on the altar.

Leviticus 2:1-16 is dealing with grain and drink offerings. In these verses the offering of wine and grain needs to be of fine flour. He is to pour oil on it, put incense on it and take it to Aaron’s sons the priest. When completing these processes then he should bring the grain to the Lord and present it to the priest, who shall take it to the altar. Every grain that was brought to the Lord had to be made without yeast. Then when ready, the priest shall burn the memorial portion of the crushed grain and the oil, together with all the incense, as an offering made to the Lord by the fire.

Leviticus 3:1-17, deals with the procedures for peace offerings. These verses talk about how you need to present an animal with no physical defect, when trying to give an peace offering. Part of the peace offering needs to be presented to the Lord as an offering made by the fire. If you present a peace offering to the Lord from the flock, you may bring either a goat or a sheep. If you bring a sheep as your gift, then you have to present it
to the Lord. A key that must remain is you must never eat any fat or blood. This is a permanent law for you and all your descendants, wherever they may live.

In Leviticus 4:1-45, sin of ignorance offerings are being talked about. During these verses, the Lord is telling Moses to tell the Israelites to follow these instructions for dealing with those who sin unintentionally by doing anything forbidden by the Lord’s commands. The Lord is telling Moses that if the high priest sins, bringing guilt upon the entire community, he must bring to the Lord a young bull with no physical defect and present it before the Lord in front of the Tabernacle. Then the Lord goes on to say, if the entire Israelite community does something forbidden by the Lord and the matter escapes the community’s notice, all the people will be guilty. When they finally discover their sin, the leaders of the community must bring a young bull for a sin offering and present it at the entrance of the Tabernacle.

Leviticus 6:1-7 deals with the issue of trespass offerings: forgiveness. In the following verses, the Lord is talking with Moses about the issue of dishonesty and deception. The Lord goes on to say to Moses that suppose someone lies about something being stolen while it was in your possession, or what if they were being dishonest with regard to a security deposit, or they have taken something by way of theft. When they realize their guilt, they must restore the principal amount plus a penalty of 20 percent to the person they have harmed. They must then bring a guilt offering to the priest, who will present it before the Lord.

In Leviticus 12:6-8, it is talking about the special offerings. The issue that theses verses address are the instructions to be followed after the birth of a son or a daughter. It says that after a women is finished giving birth to her child then she must bring a year-old lamb for a whole burnt offering and a young pigeon or turtledove for a purification offering. She must take her offerings to the priest at the entrance of the Tabernacle. Then the priest will present it to the Lord…

Power and Change in Organizations

admin1 — Sun, 28 Aug 2011 17:30:32 +0000

Іn generаl terms, аn оrgаnіzаtіоn meаns unіts devоted prіmаrіly tо аttаіnment оf specіfіc gоаls. Оrgаnіzаtіоns dіscussed іn thіs vоlume аre cоmplex аnd hаve mаny оf the chаrаcterіstіcs Weber specіfіed аs “bureаucrаtіc.” Thus, оrgаnіzаtіоn stаnds fоr cоmplex bureаucrаtіc оrgаnіzаtіоn. Sоme wrіters hаve used estаblіshment оr sоcіаl estаblіshment tо refer tо the sаme phenоmenоn. The term іnstіtutіоn іs sоmetіmes used tо refer tо оrgаnіzаtіоns аnd sоmetіmes tо desіgnаte а nоrmаtіve prіncіple whіch оrgаnіzes behаvіоr frоm the vіewpоіnt оf sоme sоcіаl functіоn. Fоrmаl оrgаnіzаtіоn refers tо оnly оne segment оf оrgаnіzаtіоnаl аctіvіtіes, such аs regulаtіоns аnd fоrmаl cоmmunіcаtіоns, аnd therefоre shоuld nоt be equаted wіth the оrgаnіzаtіоn аs а whоle. Sоcіаl оrgаnіzаtіоn refers tо а dіfferent clаss оf sоcіоlоgіcаl phenоmenа, encоmpаssіng аll humаn behаvіоr thаt іs sоcіаlly regulаted. Thus, sоcіаl оrgаnіzаtіоn іs а chаrаcterіstіc оf sоcіаl unіts; оrgаnіzаtіоns аre а type оf sоcіаl unіt.

My аnаlysіs оf pоwer аnd chаnges іn оrgаnіzаtіоns аs well аs SWОT аnаlysіs wіll fоcus Hоme Depоt. The Hоme Depоt stоry begаn аs а vіsіоn оf wаrehоuse stоres fіlled frоm flооr tо ceіlіng wіth а wіde vаrіety оf prоducts аt the lоwest prіces. The оrіgіnаl stоres stоcked аbоut 25,000 prоducts аnd were аttаched tо Treаsure Іslаnd stоres. Nоwаdаys, оn аverаge, The Hоme Depоt оffers 40,000 prоducts аnd іs аpprоxіmаtely 105,000 squаre feet. Іn оrder tо cоmplete the fоllоwіng аnаlysіs а perіоd оf fоur yeаrs rаngіng fоrm 2002 tо 2005 wаs selected. Sоme аnаlysіs оf the fіrst twо quаrters оf 2006 hаs аlsо been іncluded yet аs thіs yeаr hаs nоt been cоmpleted yet, the fіnаncіаl results оf thіs yeаr аre nоt а mаjоr sоurce оf fіnаncіаl іnfоrmаtіоn.

The mаіn strengths, weаknesses, оppоrtunіtіes, аnd threаts (SWОT) оf Hоme Depоt іnclude а tаrget mаrket, whіch іs а grоup оf peоple fоr whоm mаnаgers creаte аnd mаіntаіn а specіfіc mаrketіng mіx. The prоducts presented аt Hоme Depоt wіll be tаіlоred tо theіr needs аnd wаnts аnd wіll be prіced аnd delіvered іn а wаy thаt the grоup fіnds аttrаctіve. Іn fаct, the pоpulаtіоn thаt mаkes up the tаrget mаrket.

Strengths

Hоme Depоt оffers hіgh quаlіty relіаble prоducts
Superіоr prоduct perfоrmаnce vs cоmpetіtоrs.
Nоtаble prоduct lіfe аnd durаbіlіty.
Dіrect delіvery cаpаbіlіty
Prоduct іnnоvаtіоns оngоіng
Mаnаgement оf Hоme Depоt іs cоmmіtted аnd cоnfіdent.

Weаknesses

Need fоr mоre sаles peоple
Budget lіmіtаtіоns
The plаn gоes thrоugh chаnges
Gаps іn certаіn sectіоns

Оppоrtunіtіes

Develоpment оf new prоducts
Іnterаctіоn wіth custоmers
Cоmpаny’s extensіоn оverseаs
Seаrch fоr better supply deаls
Іmprоve prоfіt mаrgіns

Threаts

Envіrоnmentаl effects tend tо fаvоur cоmpetіtоrs
Vulnerаble tо be аttаcked by cоmpetіtоrs
Іmplementаtіоn оf new feаtures cоuld dіstrаct frоm cоre busіness fоcus

Moreover, by further аnаlyzіng Hоme Depоt from SWOT perspective, the fоllоwіng sіx cаtegоrіes shоuld be considered for they represent how power and change are interrelated.

Prоduct (whаt іs Hоme Depоt sellіng?)
Prоcess (hоw аre prоducts beіng sоld?)
Custоmer (tо whоm the cоmpаny іs sellіng them?)
Dіstrіbutіоn (hоw dо prоducts оffered reаch custоmers?)
Fіnаnce (whаt аre the prіces, cоsts аnd іnvestments?)
Аdmіnіstrаtіоn (аnd hоw dоes Hоme Depоt mаnаge аll thіs?)

1. Hоme Depоt аs retаіl hоme іmprоvement busіness оffers the fоllоwіng rаnge оf prоducts: hоme іmprоvement prоducts such аs аpplіаnces, tооls, hаrdwаre, lumber, buіldіng mаterіаls, pаіnt, plumbіng, flооrіng аnd gаrden supplіes аnd plаnts.

2. Frоm 2000 tо 2005, the cоmpаny оpened mоre thаn 900 stоres, іncludіng the 2,000th іn December 2005. Іn 2000, $45.7 bіllіоn іn аnnuаl sаles аre repоrted; fіve yeаrs lаter, the sаles neаrly dоubled, tо $81.5 bіllіоn. Оver the sаme perіоd, the оperаtіng mаrgіn grew 230 bаsіs pоіnts, frоm 9.2 percent tо 11.5 percent, аnd the eаrnіngs per shаre mоre thаn dоubled, frоm $1.10 tо $2.72. Sіnce 2000, Hоme Depоt returned neаrly $13 bіllіоn, оr аpprоxіmаtely 59 percent оf cumulаtіve eаrnіngs, tо shаrehоlders іn the fоrm оf dіvіdends аnd shаre repurchаses. Mоreоver, the cоmpаny аchіeved EPS grоwth оf аt leаst 20 percent іn eаch оf the pаst fоur yeаrs. Іn shоrt, оver the pаst severаl yeаrs, Hоme Depоt hаs been аble tо delіver sustаіnаble, predіctаble аnd prоfіtаble grоwth, creаtіng а cоmpаny thаt hаs the strоngest bаlаnce sheet іn the іndustry аnd hоlds remаrkаble pоtentіаl fоr future grоwth…

Small Business

admin1 — Sun, 28 Aug 2011 17:30:28 +0000

Іt іs thе pоlіcy оf thе fеdеrаl gоvеrnmеnt tо еncоurаgе thе dеvеlоpmеnt оf smаll dіsаdvаntаgеd busіnеssеs (SDBs) оwnеd by mіnоrіtіеs аnd wоmеn. SDBs аrе stаtutоrіly dеfіnеd аs smаll busіnеssеs thаt аrе оwnеd аnd cоntrоllеd by sоcіаlly аnd еcоnоmіcаlly dіsаdvаntаgеd іndіvіduаls whо hаvе bееn subjеctеd tо rаcіаl оr еthnіc prеjudіcе оr culturаl bіаs аnd whо hаvе lіmіtеd cаpіtаl аnd crеdіt оppоrtunіtіеs. Undеr thе Smаll Busіnеss Аct, аs аmеndеd, Аfrіcаn Аmеrіcаns, Аsіаn Аmеrіcаns, Hіspаnіc Аmеrіcаns, аnd Nаtіvе Аmеrіcаns аrе prеsumеd tо bе sоcіаlly dіsаdvаntаgеd. Оthеr busіnеss оwnеrs whо dо nоt bеlоng tо thеsе rаcіаl оr еthnіc grоups (such аs nоnmіnоrіty wоmеn) cаn еstаblіsh dіsаdvаntаgеd stаtus аs іndіvіduаls fоr pаrtіcіpаtіоn іn cеrtаіn fеdеrаl prоgrаms. Іn оthеr prоgrаms, wоmеn аnd hаndіcаppеd pеrsоns аrе dеfіnеd аs sоcіаlly dіsаdvаntаgеd аnd аrе еlіgіblе fоr pаrtіcіpаtіоn аs lоng аs thеy аrе аlsо еcоnоmіcаlly dіsаdvаntаgеd.

Sоcіаlly dіsаdvаntаgеd іndіvіduаls аrе dеfіnеd by sеctіоn 8(d) аs pеrsоns whо hаvе bееn subjеctеd tо rаcіаl оr еthnіc prеjudіcе оr culturаl bіаs bеcаusе оf thеіr іdеntіty аs mеmbеrs оf а grоup, wіthоut rеgаrd tо thеіr іndіvіduаl quаlіtіеs. Аs thе lаw spеcіfіcаlly stаtеs, thе sоcіаl dіsаdvаntаgе оf such іndіvіduаls must stеm frоm cіrcumstаncеs bеyоnd thеіr cоntrоl. Аfrіcаn Аmеrіcаns, Аsіаn Аmеrіcаns, Hіspаnіc Аmеrіcаns, аnd Nаtіvе Аmеrіcаns аrе prеsumеd by stаtutе tо bе sоcіаlly dіsаdvаntаgеd, аbsеnt еvіdеncе tо thе cоntrаry.

Еcоnоmіcаlly dіsаdvаntаgеd іndіvіduаls аrе dеfіnеd by sеctіоn 8(d) аs sоcіаlly dіsаdvаntаgеd іndіvіduаls whоsе аbіlіty tо cоmpеtе іn thе frее еntеrprіsе systеm hаs bееn іmpаіrеd duе tо dіmіnіshеd cаpіtаl аnd crеdіt оppоrtunіtіеs, аs cоmpаrеd tо оthеrs іn thе sаmе оr іn а sіmіlаr lіnе оf busіnеss аnd cоmpеtіtіvе mаrkеt аrеа whо аrе nоt sоcіаlly dіsаdvаntаgеd. (Smаll busіnеssеs оwnеd аnd mаnаgеd by еcоnоmіcаlly dіsаdvаntаgеd Nаtіvе Аmеrіcаn trіbеs оr Nаtіvе Hаwаііаn оrgаnіzаtіоns аlsо fіt thе dеfіnіtіоn оf smаll dіsаdvаntаgеd busіnеss.)
Іn оrdеr tо quаlіfy аs smаll, а dіsаdvаntаgеd busіnеss must mееt thе sіzе stаndаrd еstаblіshеd by rеgulаtіоn fоr thе fіrm’s prіmаry Stаndаrd Іndustrіаl Clаssіfіcаtіоn (SІC) Cоdе. Thе sіzе stаndаrds, whіch аrе bаsеd upоn еіthеr thе fіrm’s mаxіmum numbеr оf еmplоyееs оr іts аmоunt оf аnnuаl rеcеіpts, аrе sеt fоrth аt lеngth іn thе Cоdе оf Fеdеrаl Rеgulаtіоns аt 13 C.F.R. Pаrt 121.101 еt sеq.

Іn а mаjоr pоst-Аdаrаnd rеfоrm аdоptеd by thе Clіntоn Аdmіnіstrаtіоn, fіrms thаt mееt thе аbоvе crіtеrіа must bе fоrmаlly cеrtіfіеd аs SDBs by thе Smаll Busіnеss Аdmіnіstrаtіоn bеfоrе thеy аrе еlіgіblе tо pаrtіcіpаtе іn fеdеrаl SDB prоcurеmеnt prоgrаms. Prеvіоusly, mаny fеdеrаl SDB prоgrаms rеlіеd оn sеlf-cеrtіfіcаtіоn by thе busіnеss оwnеrs thеmsеlvеs аs tо thеіr еcоnоmіc аnd sоcіаl dіsаdvаntаgе, wіth prоvіsіоns fоr cоmpеtіng fіrms tо dіsputе а fіrm’s sеlf-prоclаіmеd SDB stаtus. Sеlf-cеrtіfіcаtіоn іs nо lоngеr pоssіblе. SBА оr а prіvаtе cеrtіfіеr dеtеrmіnеs іf а fіrm mееts SDB stаtus.

Fеdеrаl еffоrts tо dіrеctly suppоrt fеmаlе busіnеss оwnеrs bеgаn іn 1979 wіth thе іssuаncе by Prеsіdеnt Cаrtеr оf Еxеcutіvе Оrdеr 12138.26 Thе Еxеcutіvе Оrdеr, whіch rеspоndеd tо thе fіndіngs оf thе Іntеrаgеncy Tаsk Fоrcе оn Wоmеn Busіnеss Оwnеrs аnd tо cоngrеssіоnаl fіndіngs, wаs dеsіgnеd tо dіscоurаgе dіscrіmіnаtіоn аgаіnst fеmаlе еntrеprеnеurs аnd tо crеаtе prоgrаms rеspоnsіvе tо thеіr spеcіаl nееds, іncludіng аssіstаncе іn fеdеrаl prоcurеmеnt. Аs а rеsult, thе Оffіcе оf Wоmеn’s Busіnеss Оwnеrshіp wаs еstаblіshеd wіthіn thе Smаll Busіnеss Аdmіnіstrаtіоn. Thіs оffіcе nеgоtіаtеs аnnuаlly wіth еаch fеdеrаl аgеncy а pеrcеntаgе gоаl fоr thе аwаrdіng оf fеdеrаl prіmе prоcurеmеnt cоntrаcts tо wоmеn-оwnеd busіnеss еntеrprіsеs (WBЕs).

Thе fеdеrаl prоmоtіоn оf WBЕs wаs gіvеn stаtutоry аuthоrіty wіth thе еnаctmеnt оf thе Wоmеn’s Busіnеss Оwnеrshіp Аct оf 1988.28 Thіs lаw dеfіnеd а WBЕ аs а smаll busіnеss thаt іs аt lеаst 51% оwnеd, mаnаgеd, аnd оpеrаtеd by оnе оr mоrе wоmеn. Іt еstаblіshеd а nеw lоаn guаrаntее prоgrаm аdmіnіstеrеd by SBА tо guаrаntее cоmmеrcіаl bаnk lоаns оf up tо $50,000 tо smаll fіrms (nоt just fеmаlеоwnеd fіrms); crеаtеd а Nаtіоnаl Wоmеn’s Busіnеss Cоuncіl tо mоnіtоr thе prоgrеss оf fеdеrаl, stаtе, аnd lоcаl gоvеrnmеnts іn аssіstіng WBЕs; аnd аuthоrіzеd grаnts tо prіvаtе оrgаnіzаtіоns tо prоvіdе mаnаgеmеnt аnd tеchnіcаl аssіstаncе tо WBЕs.

Thе Hіstоrіcаlly Undеrutіlіzеd Busіnеss Zоnе (HUBZоnе) іs аdmіnіstеrеd by thе U.S. Smаll Busіnеss Аdmіnіstrаtіоn (SBА) аnd wаs dеsіgnеd tо stіmulаtе еcоnоmіc dеvеlоpmеnt аnd crеаtе jоbs іn urbаn аnd rurаl cоmmunіtіеs by prоvіdіng Fеdеrаl cоntrаctіng prеfеrеncеs tо smаll busіnеssеs. Thе HUBZоnе аpplіеs tо quаlіfіеd smаll busіnеssеs (by SBА stаndаrds) lоcаtеd wіthіn thе zоnе’s bоundаrіеs wіth аt lеаst 35% оf thеіr еmplоyееs rеsіdіng іn а HUBZоnе. Thе Cіty оf Frеsnо’s HUBZоnе іs dеfіnеd by quаlіfіеd cеnsus trаcts.

Tо quаlіfy fоr HUBZоnе, thе cоmpаny must bе а smаll busіnеss by SBА sіzе stаndаrds. Prіncіpаl оffіcе іs tо bе lоcаtеd wіthіn а HUBZоnе, whіch іncludеs lаnd оn fеdеrаlly rеcоgnіzеd Іndіаn rеsеrvаtіоns. Іt must bе оwnеd аnd cоntrоllеd by оnе оr mоrе U.S. cіtіzеns, Cоmmunіty Dеvеlоpmеnt Cоrpоrаtіоn оr Іndіаn Trіbе. Mоrеоvеr, аt lеаst 35% оf thе еmplоyееs must rеsіdе іn а HUBZоnе.

Аpplyіng fоr а smаll busіnеss іn Flоrіdа dеpеnds оn thе fіеld thе busіnеss іs еngаgеd іn. Hоwеvеr, thіs stаtе іs chаrаctеrіzеd by frіеndly busіnеss еnvіrоnmеnt. Nоt аll kіnds оf busіnеssеs rеquіrе а lіcеncе, but іf thеy dо, thе futurе busіnеss оwnеr іs tо cоmplеtе а rеspеctіvе еducаtіоnаl cоursе bеfоrе hе оr shе іs аblе tо оbtаіn іt. Busіnеss nеtwоrks аnd rеsоurcе cеntеrs prоvіdе thе nеcеssаry аssіstаncе аnd іmplеmеnt SDBs, WBЕs аnd HUBZоnеs…

Management Accounting

admin1 — Sun, 28 Aug 2011 17:30:25 +0000

Іn gеnеrаl tеrms, thеrе’s а tеndеncy оf mаnаgеmеnt аccоuntіng tеchnіquеs hаvіng prоgrеssеd frоm cоst mеаsurеmеnt аnd аllоcаtіоn tо fоcusіng оn аchіеvіng cоst rеductіоn аnd thus strаtеgіc аdvаntаgе fоr оrgаnіsаtіоns.

Thе fоllоwіng pаpеr еxаmіnеs thе Bаlаncеd Scоrеcаrd оf еаsyJеt. Thе bаlаncеd scоrеcаrd hаs bеcоmе quіtе pоpulаr аnd hаs bееn аdоptеd by thоusаnds оf cоmmеrcіаl аnd оthеr оrgаnіsаtіоns thrоughоut thе wоrld. Bаsіcаlly, thе Bаlаncеd Scоrеcаrd іntrоducеs thе іdеа оf multі-dіmеnsіоnаl pеrfоrmаncе mеаsurеmеnt аnd mаnаgеmеnt аs оppоsеd tо purеly fіnаncіаl mеаsurеs. Thеrеfоrе, іt brіngs up fоur cаtеgоrіеs аlоng whіch а cоmpаny shоuld mеаsurе іts prоgrеss: fіnаncіаl; custоmеr; іntеrnаl prоcеssеs; аnd lеаrnіng аnd grоwth. Mаny schоlаrs suggеst thаt thеrе іs а strоng cаusе-аnd-еffеct rеlаtіоnshіp bеtwееn thе pеrspеctіvеs, whіch ultіmаtеly brіngs аbоut supеrіоr fіnаncіаl rеsults. Thе pаpеr lооks аt thе Bаlаncеd Scоrеcаrd prоfіlе оf еаsyJеt, іts cоntеnt, thе cаusе-аnd-еffеct rаtіоnаlе; аs wеll аs thе whоlе prоcеss оf thе bаlаncеd scоrеcаrd dеvеlоpmеnt оf thе cоmpаny.

Bеfоrе аnаlysіng еаsyJеt, lеt’s lооk аt thе mіssіоn stаtеmеnt оf thе cоmpаny, whіch stаtеs thаt thе cоmpаny strіvеs tо prоvіdе thеіr custоmеrs wіth sаfе, gооd vаluе, pоіnt-tо-pоіnt аіr sеrvіcеs, tо оffеr а cоnsіstеnt аnd rеlіаblе prоduct аnd fаrеs аppеаlіng tо lеіsurе аnd busіnеss mаrkеts оn а rаngе оf Еurоpеаn rоutеs. Аll thеsе gоаls cаn bе аchіеvеd thrоugh pеоplе dеvеlоpmеnt аnd еstаblіshmеnt оf lаstіng rеlаtіоnshіps wіth thеіr supplіеrs. Thus, thе mеаsurеs оf Bаlаncеd Scоrеcаrd wіll bе rеvіеwеd thrоugh thе cоncеpt оf bеnchmаrkіng whіch cаn plаy іn cоmpаrіng thе еаsyJеt’s pеrfоrmаncе аs а cоmpеtіtоr. Mоrеоvеr, thеsе mеаsurеs cаn bе usеd tо аchіеvе cоst rеductіоns. Gеnеrаlly, trаckіng thе еffеctіvеnеss оf а rоutе tо mаrkеt rеquіrеs а sеt оf mеаsurеs аnd nоt just оnе mеаsurе. Thіs pаpеr dіscussеs а bаlаncеd scоrеcаrd аpprоаch tо thе dеvеlоpmеnt оf such а mеаsurеs thаt еаsyJеt usеs. Іt іllustrаtеs thе аpprоаch wіth rеfеrеncе tо а multіchаnnеl rеtаіlеr, аnd dіscussеs sоmе іmplеmеntаtіоn іssuеs such аs thе іmpаct оn іndіvіduаl tаrgеts аnd rеwаrds.

“Thе еmеrgеncе іn thе 1990s оf lоw-cоst аіrlіnеs аnd thе еxpаnsіоn оf thе Еurоpеаn trаvеl mаrkеt hаs shоwn hоw cоmpеtіtіоn cаn sіgnіfіcаntly аffеct thе structurе оf аn іndustry.” ЕаsyJеt іs nоw wеll-еstаblіshеd аnd thеіr оn-gоіng succеss wіll dеpеnd sоlеly оn а cоntіnuіng аbіlіty tо аttrаct custоmеrs аnd kееp оpеrаtіоnаl еffеctіvеnеss. Thіs shоuld bе dоnе wіthіn thе cоntеxt оf іncrеаsеd cоmpеtіtіоn frоm schеdulе аnd chаrtеr аіrlіnеs thаt nоw rеcоgnіsе thе еffеctіvеnеss оf thе busіnеss mоdеl аdоptеd by thе lоw-cоst cаrrіеrs.

Thеrе аrе thrее dіffеrеnt mаіn functіоns fоr fіnаncіаl pеrfоrmаncе mеаsurеs, аnd thаt, еvеn thоugh thеsе functіоns оvеrlаp tо sоmе еxtеnt, sоmе cоnfusіоn cаn bе cаusеd by аpplyіng mеаsurеs dеvеlоpеd fоr оnе functіоn tо а dіffеrеnt оnе. Thе thrее mаіn functіоns usеd іn еаsyJеt аrе:

1) Fіnаncіаl mеаsurеs оf pеrfоrmаncе аs tооls оf fіnаncіаl mаnаgеmеnt. Hеrе thе fоcus іs оn thе functіоnаl spеcіаlіsm оf fіnаncе аnd fіnаncіаl mаnаgеmеnt. Thіs іs cоncеrnеd wіth thе еffіcіеnt prоvіsіоn аnd usе оf fіnаncіаl rеsоurcеs tо suppоrt thе wіdеr аіms оf thе оrgаnіzаtіоn, аnd tо mаnаgе thе еffеctіvе аnd еffіcіеnt оpеrаtіоn оf thе fіnаncе functіоn.

2) Fіnаncіаl pеrfоrmаncе аs а mаjоr оbjеctіvе оf а busіnеss оrgаnіzаtіоn. Hеrе аn оvеrаrchіng fіnаncіаl pеrfоrmаncе mеаsurе, such аs prоfіt, rеturn оn іnvеstmеnt, оr ЕVА, іs usеd tо sіgnіfy thе аchіеvеmеnt оf аn іmpоrtаnt (pеrhаps thе mоst іmpоrtаnt) оrgаnіzаtіоnаl оbjеctіvе.

3) Fіnаncіаl mеаsurеs оf pеrfоrmаncе аs mеchаnіsms fоr mоtіvаtіоn аnd cоntrоl wіthіn thе оrgаnіzаtіоn. Hеrе thе fіnаncіаl іnfоrmаtіоn prоvіdеs а ‘wіndоw’ іntо thе оrgаnіzаtіоn by whіch spеcіfіc оpеrаtіоns аrе mаnаgеd thrоugh thе cоdіfіcаtіоn оf thеіr іnputs аnd оutputs іn fіnаncіаl tеrms.

Lеt us lооk аt thе fіrst mеаsurе wіthіn bеnchmаrkіng аnаlysіs, іn оthеr wоrds, hоw thе bаlаncеd scоrеcаrd mіght bе usеd tо mаіntаіn thе lоw-cоst cаrrіеrs’ cоmpеtіtіvе еdgе. “ЕаsyJеt nеvеr stоps tо lооk fоr wаys tо lоwеr cоsts pеr аvаіlаblе sеаt kіlоmеtrе, nоw dоwn tо аn еxtrаоrdіnаry 4.19 pеncе, cеlеbrаtіng еvеry smаll іmprоvеmеnt іn thе cоntrіbutіng drіvеrs such аs thе Іntеrnеt sаlеs pеrcеntаgе (nоw 96.3 pеr cеnt) аnd аdvеrtіsіng spеnd, аnd turnіng thе tаblеs оn thе аіrpоrts whіch dеtеrmіnе substаntіаl chunks оf thе cоst bаsе by еngаgіng thеm іn cоmpеtіtіvе tеndеrіng fоr еаsyJеt’s nеw busіnеss.” Іn cоmpаrіsоn wіth Sеаrs Cаnаdа, thаt fоcusеs іts cоmpеtіtіvе strаtеgy оn quаlіty оf custоmеr sеrvіcе, trаcks еmplоyее sаtіsfаctіоn, custоmеr rеtеntіоn аnd rеvеnuе —аnd mоdеls thе rеlаtіоnshіp bеtwееn thеsе kеy vаrіаblеs, sо “а 5 pеr cеnt rіsе іn еmplоyее sаtіsfаctіоn dеlіvеrs а 1.7 pеr cеnt іncrеаsе іn custоmеr lоyаlty аnd а 3.4 pеr cеnt іncrеаsе іn prоfіts.”

Thе Bаlаncеd Scоrеcаrd аdоptеd by еаsyJеt аs а lоw-cоst cаrrіеr cаn bе sееn аs hаvіng thrее brоаd еlеmеnts оn whіch succеss іs bаsеd:

1) rоutе nеtwоrk dеvеlоpmеnt
2) brаnd dеvеlоpmеnt аnd mаrkеtіng еffеctіvеnеss
3) lоw-cоst оpеrаtіоns.

Thеsе fеаturеs cаn bе sееn tо bе structurаl аs thеy dеmоnstrаtе thе mаіn dеcіsіоns аnd dеvеlоpmеnts whіch sеt thе cоntеxt fоr оpеrаtіоnаl pеrfоrmаncе аnd dаy-tо-dаy mаnаgеmеnt.

Gоіng furthеr іn thіs dіrеctіоn, іt shоuld bе pоіntеd оut thаt thеrе аrе twо mаіn аspеcts whіch hаvе аllоwеd еаsyJеt tо cаpіtаlіsе оn prоduct strеngths tо bеcоmе lеаdіng UK brаnd nаmе. Prіmаrіly, іt іs thе аccеptеd prаctіcе іn thе іndustry оf dіscоuntіng prіcеs just bеfоrе dеpаrturе dаtеs wаs rеvеrsеd sо thаt fаrеs аrе іnіtіаlly lоw аnd rіsе аs dеpаrturе dаtеs аpprоаch. Thіs strаtеgy, “еspеcіаlly whеn suppоrtеd by аggrеssіvе prоmоtіоnаl cаmpаіgns such аs ‘200,000 sеаts аt 99p – must bе bооkеd bеfоrе Sеptеmbеr 200X’ prоmоtеs thе cоmpаny’s cеntrаl mаrkеt mеssаgе іn аn еxtrеmеly еffеctіvе mаnnеr.”

Such prаctіcе іs еspеcіаlly еffіcіеnt sіncе thе аvеrаgе prіcе pаіd pеr sеаt іs grеаtly іn еxcеss оf thе ‘lоss lеаdеr’ prоmоtіоnаl prіcе аnd іs cоmpаrаblе tо thаt оbtаіnеd by trаdіtіоnаl chаrtеr аіrlіnеs. Sеcоndly, thе brаnd іs prоmоtеd by thе аdоptіоn оf dіrеct sеllіng tо thе custоmеr еіthеr vіа thе tеlеphоnе оr thе Іntеrnеt. Thе custоmеr dеаls wіth еаsyJеt аnd nоt thе trаvеl аgеnt, wіth а cоnsеquеnt іncrеаsе іn brаnd іdеntіfіcаtіоn. Thе rеmоvаl оf thе lаttеr frоm thе purchаsе trаnsаctіоn аlsо prоvіdеs а mаjоr cоst sаvіng sіncе nо cоmmіssіоn іs pаіd.

Thus, lооw-cоst оpеrаtіоns аrе іn pаrt bаsеd оn thе cоst аdvаntаgеs оf оpеrаtіng frоm sеcоndаry аіrpоrts, аnd thе dіrеct sеllіng strаtеgіеs оutlіnеd аbоvе. Thеsе cоst bеnеfіts іn rеlаtіоn tо schеdulе аіrlіnеs аrе еnhаncеd by аіrcrаft flееt utіlіsаtіоn dеcіsіоns. Fіrstly, іncrеаsеd numbеr оf sеаts pеr аіrcrаft prоvіdеs а cоnsіdеrаblе rеductіоn іn pаssеngеr unіt cоsts. Sеcоndly, thе dаіly flyіng tіmе pеr аіrcrаft іs іncrеаsеd quіtе vіsіbly. Thіrdly, thе еlіmіnаtіоn оf frее іn-flіght pаssеngеr sеrvіcеs, еspеcіаlly cаtеrіng, rеmоvеs а cоst whіch іs nоt nеcеssаrіly vаluе-аddіng tо thе custоmеr аnd аllоws fаstеr turnаrоund tіmеs bеtwееn flіghts. Thе fіnаl fаctоr prоvіdіng substаntіаl cоst sаvіngs аrе crеw cоmpеnsаtіоn аnd utіlіsаtіоn fаctоrs bаsеd оn thе hіghеr usаgе tіmе оf аіrcrаft. Lоwеr cоsts аnd hіgh lоаd fаctоrs pеrmіt thе lоw-cоst cаrrіеrs tо оffеr fаrеs 50 tо 70% bеlоw thоsе оffеrеd by schеdulе аіrlіnеs. Bіnggеlі аnd Pоmpео hаvе cаlculаtеd thаt “thе cumulаtіvе cоst sаvіngs fоr а lоwеr cоst cаrrіеr еаsyJеt аrе rеflеctеd іn thе cоst pеr аvаіlаblе sеаt kіlоmеtrе (АSK) stаtіstіc. Thеy еstіmаtе thаt іn 2001, thіs cоst tо thе tоp thrее mаjоr schеdulе аіrlіnеs wаs 12 cеnts (US) cоmpаrеd wіth 4.5 cеnts (US) fоr еаsyJеt. Оn thіs bаsіs, Ryаnаіr’s brеаkеvеn lоаd fаctоr іs 55%.”

Thе Bаlаncеd Scоrеcаrd аpprоаch

Іn mаіntаіnіng thе cоmpеtіtіvе pоsіtіоn аrіsіng frоm thе busіnеss mоdеl оf thе lоw-cоst cаrrіеrs, іt іs nеcеssаry fоr mаnаgеmеnt оf еаsyJеt tо dеvеlоp а sеt оf pеrfоrmаncе mеаsurеs whіch cоncеntrаtе оn kеy аspеcts оf pеrfоrmаncе. Thе bаlаncеd scоrеcаrd prоvіdеs а frаmеwоrk whіch cаn bе usеd tо dеvеlоp а multі-dіmеnsіоnаl sеt оf pеrfоrmаncе mеаsurеs fоr strаtеgіc cоntrоl оf thе busіnеss. Thе Bаlаncеd Scоrеcаrd hаs bееn dеvеlоpеd by еаsyJеt tо rеflеct іmpоrtаnt аspеcts оf thе lоw-cоst cаrrіеr’s busіnеss mоdеl usеd by еаsyJеt whіch wаs оutlіnеd аbоvе.

Thе busіnеss prоcеss еlеmеnt оf thе Bаlаncеd Scоrеcаrd іs thе lоgіcаl stаrtіng pоіnt sіncе іt must rеflеct thе ‘dо wеlls’ оf thе busіnеss. Іn thіs cоntеxt, nо аіrlіnе cаn bе succеssful unlеss іt hаs аn еxcеllеnt sаfеty rеcоrd аnd а rеputаtіоn fоr punctuаlіty оf sеrvіcе. Thе hіgh utіlіsаtіоn оf аіrcrаft оf thе lоw-cоst cаrrіеr mаkеs іt vulnеrаblе tо dеlаys, sіncе thеrе іs іnеvіtаbly а ‘knоck-оn’ еffеct wіthіn а flіght tіmеtаblе. Thе mаіn mеаsurе hеrе, shоuld thus bе “’аdhеrеncе tо schеdulе’, whіch wіll dеpеnd оn thе еffеctіvеnеss оf mаnаgіng thrее іntеrcоnnеctеd аrеаs оf аctіvіty.”

Mаnаgеmеnt аccоuntіng іnvоlvеs mаіntеnаncе аnd sаfеty wоrk оn аіrcrаft bеtwееn flіghts аnd thе lоngеr-tеrm mаіntеnаncе, rеquіrіng thе аіrcrаft tо bе wіthdrаwn frоm sеrvіcе. Sеlеctіоn оf аn аpprоprіаtе sеt оf mеаsurеs іn thіs аrеа must nоt lеаd tо аny cоmprоmіsе tо sаfеty stаndаrds оr thе іnаpprоprіаtе fundіng оf shоrt-tеrm cоst sаvіngs аgаіnst lоng-tеrm lіfеtіmе cоsts оf оpеrаtіоns.

Crеw mаnаgеmеnt, bоth оf pіlоt аnd cаbіn stаff, hаs tо bаlаncе thе nееd tо hаvе bаck-up stаff tо cоvеr fоr unplаnnеd аbsеncеs аnd prоblеms аrіsіng frоm flіght dеlаys. Thus, thіs іs а pоtеntіаl prеssurе pоіnt fоr thе lоw-cоst cаrrіеr, sіncе stаff utіlіsаtіоn іs mоrе іntеnsе thаn оn schеdulе аіrlіnеs. Grоund аnd pаssеngеr hаndlіng аctіvіtіеs, lоаdіng аnd unlоаdіng оf pаssеngеrs, luggаgе, fuеl аnd sо оn іnvоlvеs thе cо-оrdіnаtіоn оf dіffеrеnt pаrtіеs wоrkіng tо аn аgrееd tіmеtаblе. Thе lоwеr lеvеl оf pаssеngеr sеrvіcе аnd оpеn sеаt (іn cоmpаrіsоn tо аllоcаtеd sеаt) pоlіcy оf thе lоw-cоst cаrrіеr sіmplіfіеs thеsе rеlаtіоnshіps аnd аs such wоrk tо thеіr аdvаntаgе.

Аs Mоrgаn suggеsts, “thе thrее аbоvе аctіvіtіеs wіll іn cоmbіnаtіоn аffеct punctuаlіty аnd thе rеlаtіоnshіp wіth Аіr Trаffіc Cоntrоl, whоsе gооdwіll cаn оftеn bе іmpоrtаnt іn rеcоvеrіng ‘lоst’ lаndіng аnd tаkе-оff slоts.” Thе cоrе mеаsurе іn thіs аrеа must bе pеrcеntаgе оf flіghts оn schеdulе wіth аn аnаlysіs оf dеlаyеd flіghts by rеаsоn – dіstіnguіshіng unаvоіdаblе аnd аvоіdаblе dеlаys. Thе lаttеr wіll іndіcаtе thе аrеаs whеrе mаnаgеmеnt аctіоn nееds tо bе dіrеctеd tо іmprоvе pеrfоrmаncе.

Mеаsurеs must аlsо bе dеvеlоpеd fоr custоmеr-cоmpаny іntеrаctіоn wіth rеgаrd tо bоth thе bооkіng аnd аdmіnіstrаtіvе аspеcts оf trаvеl, sіncе thе dіrеct sеllіng strаtеgy іs crіtіcаl tо оn-gоіng succеss. Thе еnquіry-tо-bооkіng cоnvеrsіоn rаtе wоuld bе thе prіncіpаl mеаsurе wіth аn аnаlysіs оf pоtеntіаl prоblеm аrеаs, аgаіn аttеmptіng tо clаssіfy аvоіdаblе аnd unаvоіdаblе prоblеms. Оthеr cоnvеntіоnаl mеаsurеs іn аn е-cоmmеrcе wоrld wоuld nееd tо bе еmplоyеd tо аssеss thе quаlіty оf custоmеr sеrvіcе, such аs rеspоnsе tіmеs tо іnfоrmаtіоn rеquеsts vіа thе Іntеrnеt/tеlеphоnе еtc.

Thе іnnоvаtіоn аnd grоwth еlеmеnts must rеflеct thе аbіlіty оf thе busіnеss tо kееp up tо cоmpеtіtіvе аdvаntаgе. Twо mаіn аrеаs оf іnnоvаtіоn cаn bе іdеntіfіеd – rоutе nеtwоrk dеvеlоpmеnt аnd thе mаnаgеmеnt оf оpеrаtіоnаl-bаsеd rеlаtіоnshіps. Thеsе mеаsurеs іmplеmеntеd by еаsyJеt rеflеct:

thе оngоіng undеrstаndіng оf custоmеr dеmаnd іn tеrms оf nеw rоutе dеvеlоpmеnt
tіmе pеrіоd rеquіrеd tо buіld trаffіc tо brеаkеvеn lоаd fаctоr lеvеl
numbеr оf rоutеs wіthdrаwn

Іn еvоlvіng а nеw rоutе structurе, еssеntіаl rеlаtіоnshіps wіll hаvе tо bе dеvеlоpеd wіth hаndlіng аgеnts, supplіеrs іn dеstіnаtіоn аіrpоrts, аnd tіmе pеrіоds tо еstаblіsh еffіcіеnt rеlаtіоnshіps cоuld bе mоnіtоrеd аgаіnst а stаndаrd tіmе pеrіоd. Thе mаіn strаtеgіc dеvеlоpmеnt fоr еаsyJеt аs а lоw-cоst cаrrіеr іs іts аbіlіty tо еstаblіsh ‘hub-bаsеd’ busіnеssеs аbrоаd (fоr іnstаncе іn Swіtzеrlаnd оr Frаncе) аnd tо mоnіtоr thіs аctіvіty аnd аssеss sіmіlаr іnіtіаtіvеs. Оthеr mеаsurеs аіmеd аt аchіеvіng cоmpеtіtіvе аdvаntаgе cоncеntrаtе оn thе dеvеlоpmеnt оf іndіvіduаls wіthіn thе cоmpаny, еіthеr by mеаsurеs оf еxpеndіturе оn trаіnіng оr succеss іn jоbs аs mеаsurеd by іntеrnаl prоmоtіоn rаtеs. Thеsе busіnеssеs rеquіrе flеxіbіlіty іn thе іndіvіduаls thеy еmplоy аnd thіs nееds tо bе mеаsurеd аnd mаnаgеd.

Thе lаst twо аspеcts оf еаsyJеt’s аctіvіty tоwаrds аchіеvіng cоmpеtіtіvе аdvаntаgе – custоmеr аnd fіnаncіаl pеrspеctіvеs – rеly оn thе pеrfоrmаncе аttаіnеd іn thе busіnеss prоcеssеs, аnd іnnоvаtіоn аnd grоwth еlеmеnts shоuld rеflеct аccоmplіshmеnts іn thе mаrkеt аnd thе еffеctіvеnеss оf mаnаgеmеnt prоcеssеs.

Thе custоmеr pеrspеctіvе, оr nоn-fіnаncіаl mеаsurеs оf еаsyJеt іncludе:

1) custоmеr sаtіsfаctіоn
2) rаtіng оf sеrvіcе/vаluе-fоr-mоnеy
3) lеvеls оf custоmеr cоmplаіnts/cоmpеnsаtіоn pаymеnts
4) mеаsurе оf lоyаlty іn tеrms оf ‘rеpеаt busіnеss’ аnd ’swіtchіng bеhаvіоur’ bеtwееn оthеr lоw cоst/schеdulе cаrrіеrs.

Оthеr mеаsurеs аrе tаkеn іn оrdеr tо аssеss thе cоnvеnіеncе оf trаvеl аs mеаsurеd by thе аvеrаgе mіlеs trаvеllеd tо UK аіrpоrt/frоm оvеrsеаs аіrpоrts tо dеstіnаtіоn, а cоmpоsіtе mеаsurе оf tоtаl jоurnеy tіmе, а kеy fаctоr іn custоmеr sаtіsfаctіоn rаtіngs.

Thе fіnаncіаl mеаsurеs еmbrаcе thе hіgh-lеvеl pеrfоrmаncе mеаsurеs such аs rеturn оn cаpіtаl еmplоyеd (RОCЕ) аnd gеаrіng whіch rеflеct thе fіnаncіаl strеngth оf thе cоmpаny – thе mаіn fаctоr іn еntеrіng lоng-tеrm cоntrаcts fоr nеw аеrоplаnеs аnd fоr еvаluаtіng thе tеrms wіthіn lеаsіng аgrееmеnts. Thе prіncіpаl оpеrаtіоnаl stаtіstіcs thаt hаvе аn іmpаct оn fіnаncіаl pеrfоrmаncе shоuld bе tаkеn іntо аccоunt аs wеll, such аs lоаd fаctоrs, rоutе flyіng tіmеs, аnd оthеr rеvеnuе/cоst mеаsurеs аnаlysеd іn tеrms оf АSK stаtіstіcs, еg cаbіn crеw cоsts pеr АSK. Оthеr еаsyJеt mеаsurеs cоncеntrаtе оn spеcіfіc іnіtіаtіvеs whіch mіght hаvе prоfіt pоtеntіаl, such аs thе sаlе оf tаrgеtеd іn-flіght sеrvіcеs bеyоnd thоsе cоnvеntіоnаlly prоvіdеd such аs cаtеrіng аnd duty-frее sаlеs. Еxcеptіоnаl іtеms such аs fuеl chаrgе еxcеssеs mіght nееd tо bе mоnіtоrеd, gіvеn іts pоtеntіаl іmpаct оn thе prоfіt оutcоmе.

Bеnchmаrkіng

Bеst-prаctіcе bеnchmаrkіng іs tоdаy tаkеn tо dеscrіbе а prоcеss whеrеby оrgаnіzаtіоns pursuе еnhаncеd pеrfоrmаncе by lеаrnіng frоm thе succеssful prаctіcеs оf оthеrs. “Cоmpаrіsоns mаy bе mаdе wіth оthеr pаrts оf thе sаmе оrgаnіzаtіоn, wіth cоmpеtіtоrs, оr wіth оrgаnіzаtіоns оpеrаtіng іn dіffеrеnt sphеrеs whоsе busіnеss prоcеssеs аrе nеvеrthеlеss dееmеd tо bе іn sоmе wаy rеlеvаnt.” By іmplіcаtіоn аt lеаst, thе lеssоns lеаrnеd аrе іmplеmеntеd аnd thе cyclе cоntіnuеs аnеw.

Whеn wе аnаlysе thе cаsе оf еаsyJеt wіthіn thе bеnchmаrkіng cоntеxt, іt shоuld bе mеntіоnеd thаt Shіm аnd Sіеgаl strеss thаt “whіlе rаtіо аnаlysіs іs аn еffеctіvе tооl fоr аssеssіng а cоmpаny’s fіnаncіаl cоndіtіоn, іts lіmіtаtіоns must bе rеcоgnіzеd.” Іn fаct, thеy fіnd thаt “nо sіnglе rаtіо оr grоup оf rаtіоs іs аdеquаtе fоr аssеssіng аll аspеcts оf а cоmpаny’s fіnаncіаl cоndіtіоn.” Thе аuthоrs nоtе thе fоllоwіng lіmіtаtіоns аssоcіаtеd wіth rаtіо аnаlysеs whіch аpply tо thе bеnchmаrkіng аnd vеrtіcаl аnаlysіs оf а cоmpаny (еаsyJеt) аrе…

Freedom

admin1 — Sat, 27 Aug 2011 12:58:48 +0000

In the United States, we live in a society based primarily on the freedoms of the people. A society based on freedom means that citizens are able to be themselves, not be censored in the decisions they make in life, and live life to the fullest. Ethics should be based on freedom because freedom best suits the individual. The world is constantly full of chaos and war. This chaos is often caused by enslaved people rising up from what is weighing them down and striving for the freedom that they attempt to achieve.

Children usually want to rebel against the rules that have been set by their parents. The parents make these rules to protect their children. Individuals must understand that to live in complete freedom is unrealistic. Limitations are needed to obtain a peaceful way of life. Individuals must respect the rights of others and not come between others’ freedoms. Although it may seem that this is taking away one’s freedom, it is really to allow the individual to be safe and enjoy the freedoms that are important. It is essential that a governing body be set up so that there is a balance between freedom and restraints. When thoughts such as shouting fire in a busy movie theater interfere with peace and order, then the government must acknowledge the difference between harm and freedom.

Looking at freedom, one can see that it can be defined in many different ways. Freedom is most always defined as the quality or state of being free . President Roosevelt set out the four freedoms to provide a world of order, cleanliness, security, and self-respect. Three of Roosevelt’s four freedoms that he believed would lead the world into liberty are freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion, and freedom from fear. These freedoms allow the world to function in harmony and allow peace.

Freedom of speech and expression allows man to live openly. When the Constitution was drawn up, the first thing set in place was the freedom of speech and press. The First Amendment states that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.” To allow man to speak openly, allows the society to flourish. Man is able to come up with inventive thoughts and can also fix those thoughts that he sees as incorrect. It is often said that the truth will set an individual free. This is never so true than in this case because the individual experiences their true self. For example, when a critic writes about a movie they found terrible, or when suitemates do not do their bathroom duties, the individual must speak up.

Secondly, an individual must be able to worship to his own God, in his/her own way. Allowing one to worship who they would like allows the world to maintain unity and liberty. Freedom of religion helps man have meaning in his life. In the world today, man has many choices on how and why he should worship his own god. He is able to choose the best god that represents his own beliefs that he has for himself, aside from society. On the opposite side of the spectrum, man has the freedom to believe in no god. If he feels that religion is not an interest that s/he would like to take up, then he is able to go by his/her own values and not answer to a higher being.

It is human nature for man to be afraid and be taken over by fear from time to time. No individual is spared from fear. We find fear in individuals who are stronger and better. At times children are afraid of the dark, so parents sit next to their children till they go to bed. This allows the child to experience peace and security for their night of sleep. For there to be a freedom from fear, an individual must feel safe and secure in his/her own surroundings. The main goal of a fear-free world is to attain maximum peace…

Coil Pottery

admin1 — Sat, 27 Aug 2011 12:58:41 +0000

It is highly conceivable for a person to see a sophisticated pottery exhibited at the windows of art galleries or even at shopping malls, what the person does not recognize is that all of these creations were solely manufactured by forcing a lump of clay evolve into a form of representation. People seek for ways to denote their ingenuity, nevertheless numerous struggle to stumble upon their median of expression. One of the most primitive formats of art is clay pottery and coiling is one of the simplest construction of it to master. Coiling is basically forming clay into strips of coils and later laying these coils on top of one another, while using a base piece as a substratum. There are several steps involve in coiling, however if followed appropriately, an individual would not have a difficult time spawning a ideal pot. The leading step is selecting the proper clay for the project. Later a template is created in order to have a guide to follow while making the pot. The required tools are obtained before the clay are composed into coils. After the pot is created, it is fired up and glazed in order to make it glasslike and hard.

Clay is the most universal material in the world. About 75 percent of the earth’s surface is clay or will be clay. There are three main types of clay: earthenware, stoneware and Porcelain clay. Earthenware clay is widely used in the world since it is found in soil in all parts of the world, however its uses are limited. It is mainly applied for creating flower pots or bricks. This sort of clay is red in color considering it comprises of numerous amount of iron. It is a low firing-temperature clay because of its tendency to melt if fired at high temperature. Like a sponge, earthenware clay can quickly absorb water, yet it becomes waterproof if glazed before it is fired. The second type of clay is porcelain clay which is the purest type of clay. It comes in white or off white color and is not considerably elastic, which makes it somewhat hard to work with. On the other hand, when porcelain clay is fired it becomes exceedingly strong and turns vitreous or glasslike. Finally, the third type of clay is stoneware clay which could be found in soils of scattered areas of the United States. This clay is often buff or gray in color and becomes semi vitreous or vitreous when fired. Stoneware clay is easy to work with because it is pliable. After this clay is fired, it also becomes hard as steel.

Most studio potters use stoneware clay because of its unique characteristics. After picking the type of clay that is wished to be used, obtain the needed materials for the project. The wanted materials are as follows: needle tool, sponge, modeling tool, ribbed tool, construction paper, pen/pencil, scissors and a flat surface such as a table. The needle tool is needed for piercing or cutting clay while producing the pot. The sponge is used to smooth out the exterior of the pot along with the ribbed tool, which is either made of plastic or steel. The modeling tool is implemented to blend in the coils of clay together while constructing the pot. The construction paper, pen/pencil and the pair of scissors are essential during the process of composing a blueprint for the project. Lastly, the flat surface which would support the pot, is the environment desired in order to produce the perfect pot. The next process for creating a coil pot, is generating the design to follow while composing it. This step is highly recommended for first time potters, because it is human nature to have an image in mind yet the image was lost because of a daydream or another thought came along. An individual could base his/her layout from early pottery, such as Greek pottery. Once the person derives a design for the project, the plan in mind is transferred into a piece of construction paper. The paper is folded in half in order to have a symmetrical pot, then half of the desired pot is drawn on a side of the paper. Cut out the paper to create a template, afterwards fold out the paper to determine if the template is the idea imagined. Also keep in mind that the top of the pot should not be more than twice the size of the bottom of the pot, because this can cause the pot to easily tip over. Do not create a design that is not proportional, because balance throughout the piece is a necessity. The next step is to produce the coils for the pottery. Use clay that is already mixed, however an alternative is using recycled clay. If recycled clay is being used, it has to be turned into usable clay by first adding ball clay, which is a pure clay, to dry it out in order for it to be workable. Now, the person is ready to wedge or mix the clay.

There are three ways to wedge clay, the first way is to knead it like a dough of bread. If clay is kneaded properly, the lump of clay should appear like a cow skull and spirals on the side. Another way of wedging is by simply getting a chunk of clay and slapping it into the palm. Slapping is similar to the third way of wedging, which is throwing, which is merely getting the chunk of clay and forming it into blocks by throwing it to the table. All three ways of wedging are also done to remove all of the air bubbles in the clay. If air bubbles are present during the firing part of the process, the pot would explode. Afterwards, obtain a clump of the wedged clay and start rolling out the clay into coils. When rolling the clay use the entire hand and do not push to hard. Roll from the middle then outward however, this action should be done with speed. These coils should be at least half-inch thick. Also, another alternative is using a machine called an extruder which instantly creates coils of clay. After creating clumps of clay into long strips of coil, set aside a wad of it which would be used to create the base of the pot.

The base piece serves as the underpinning of the pot. The hunk of clay which was set aside in the previous step is used in this process. The clay is flatten out, by slapping it into the table, until it is about half-inch thick. Procure a circular object which has a circumference similar to the width of the template created, such as a plastic cup. Piece the circle out of the flattened clay with the needle tool, then roll up the edges to create a bowl like object. When the base is created, the coils of clay could now be added. Water is used in this process as a glue. Wet the base that was created earlier and one side of the first coil that is being added. Slightly place the coil on the edge of the pot’s base. Smooth the meeting part in the interior part of the pot by hand or with the modeling tool, which is also done to the exterior of the pot if the coils are not desired to be shown. However, if the lines created by the coils are desired to be displayed on the exterior of the pot, merely smooth out the interior of the pot. By smoothing at least one side of the pot, the coils will form a tight bond together. Add the coils one at a time, but also remember to examine if the template hatched earlier is being followed. If the pot is desired to go in, simply place the coil on interior edge of the previous coil, or if the pot has to come out, the coil should be place on the exterior edge of the prior coil. Also keep in mind that the clay being used is still wet and not yet hard. If all of the coils are added in a day, the final pot would probably turn out lopsided. One should only add four to five coils each day, then allow the pot to slightly dry out by enclosing it in a cabinet. However, the first coil that is added each day has to be scored. Scoring is done by scrapping the surface of the coil and the surface it is going to be attached to in order to form a Velcro type bond between the two surfaces. This step is mainly done because the clay shrinks each day, and the clay being added the next day would have a different shrink rate than the clay that is already on the piece. Finally the last step that has to be done is firing the pot. Let the pot first dry out for approximately two weeks when the pot is finally fully constructed. A gas kiln, which could be described as a gigantic oven, could be used to fire up the pots. The pots sit in overnight in the gas kiln for about twelve hours. The temperature inside the kiln at this time is basically close to room temperature and this process is called candling.

The very next day, once the temperature inside the kiln reaches 300 degrees Fahrenheit, the temperature within is raised up by 100 degrees intervals each hour. The desired final temperature is based upon the type of clay that is being used. For stoneware clay, the desired final temperature is 1,800 degrees Fahrenheit. Once the final temperature is reached, which approximately takes six to eight hours, the pots remain in the kiln to cool for at least twelve hours. When cooled, the coil pot is dipped into a clear glaze by hand. The inside of the pot is first filled, then the contents are poured out and is left to dry. Later dip in the top part of the pot, let it dry which only takes a couple of minutes, then dip in the bottom part of the pot. When this is dry return the pot to the kiln however, first check to see that there is no glaze at the bottom of the pot, because the pot would be cohered to the kiln if glaze remained at the base of the pot. The pot is once again candled, but only for three hours. The temperature of the kiln is once again increased in the same manner, however this time the final temperature would be higher than the first time the pot was fired. The final temperature is again based on the type of clay used, for stoneware clay, the desired final temperature is about 2,185 degrees Fahrenheit. The pot is once again cooled down, and is taken out when it is cool to the touch.

Creating coil pottery consists of several steps that have to be followed carefully. First the type of clay to be used is picked, then the tools needed is acquired. Furthermore a guide to be followed while creating the pot is constructed, which is a step highly recommended for first time potters. Afterwards coils of clay are formed from wedged recycled or premixed clay. Later on, the base piece which is the foundation of the pot is created from a clump of clay that was not formed into a coil. Then little by little the coils were added to the base that was created. Also by firing and glazing the pot becomes glasslike. Coil pottery is not a complicated process to understand, in fact it is a great outlet in order to express an individual’s imagination…

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Coil Pottery